book review ppt

book review ppt
LEADERSHIP BOOK FOR THIS PRESENTATION – The Culture Code: The Secrets of Highly Successful Groups” by Daniel Coyle Find this book here: https://d-pdf.com/electronic-book/3852 Leadership book presentation – here are a few reminders that you might find helpful. There are certain requirements for this assignment that students sometimes overlook. For that reason, here are a few things I’d like to bring to your attention for your presentations:   1)  Make sure the presentation is either a PowerPoint or a Prezi presentation – no other type will be allowed. 2)  The font size for the titles of slides is to be a size 44. 3)  The font size for bullets on slides is to be between sizes 28-34. 4)  Maximum of 12 slides allowed (does not include the title, agenda, or reference slides).  5)  Speaker notes are to be included on every slide (except not the title, agenda, or reference slides). 6)  No paragraphs or long sentences on any slides – use bullet points only 7)  Cite any information from your book on the slide – use a smaller font for the citation if you wish – this means there should be a citation on virtually every slide for anything that comes from the book. Do not put citations in the speaker notes section because the audience does not see these notes. 8)  Create an agenda slide for the presentation 9)  Review the instructions in the Week 11 Content Folder titled “Book Review Presentation” to see the 8 questions that you are to address with this presentation.  If any of these questions are not answered it will lower the grade the presentation will receive. 10)  Review the instructions for this in the syllabus – lots of information there.   11)  Review the sample PPT that I emailed everyone last week.  12)  Make sure my name is on the first slide. 13)  Make sure the file is less than 10 MB in size.  If it is 10MB or larger, it will have to be compressed.   Create and deliver an effective presentation. Demonstrate passion and connect with your audience. Develop verbal and nonverbal presentation skills. In addition to the book, please include three additional references. Be sure to fully cite your presentation using 7th edition APA for in-text citations and references. As we may/may not be sharing your LIVE presentation with the class. Be sure to add all of your speaker’s notes in the notes page area for each slide (the notes should not be visible to the audience). Leadership Book Review Presentation is due on April 2nd. Message from prof: As an example of a Leadership Book PPT that I could share –  While I don’t have one for a leadership book, I did create a book PPT using the assignment guidelines about a book I recently finished reading.  I used the instructions for the PPT assignment in this course to put it together as an example.  Pay close attention to the font sizes of the titles of slides and the text on the slides. This is important, so pay attention to that. It is not a leadership book, but it does contain all the slide requirements the assignment asks for and these are in the correct font size for titles and content on slides in bullet format.  As is stated in the instructions, the bulk of what you will say when you do your presentation is to be noted in the speaker notes section at the bottom of each slide – which is not visible to your audience.  You are not to read off your slides, they are just to contain bullet points of the highlights that you elaborate on verbally when giving your presentation. Remember no paragraphs on the slides either and citations on every slide except for the title slide, agenda slide, and reference(s) slide(s). Please refer to the example PPT I have attached here.  This was not done on a leadership book, but it will provide an overview of how your presentation should be formatted.  Keep an eye on the font sizes of the titles of the slides and the text on the slides.  Many people use much too small font sizes on these presentations.  Keep in mind that PPT slides would be projected on a screen for an audience to read, so they cannot have a small size font on them. Do not use the example PPT (attached below) as the base for this presentation, we are to create our own template and own slide design for this assignment. (Part of the requirements for this assignment is that you design the whole presentation yourself including the style chosen etc.). Note the size of the headings and the text on the example PPT, they are the correct sizes that I want to see on your slides. Thanks! Sample PPT.pptx
book review ppt
C opyrig ht © 2 018 b y D an ie l C oyle A ll r ig hts r e se rv ed . P ublis h ed i n t h e U nite d S ta te s b y B an ta m B ooks, a n i m prin t o f R an dom H ouse , a d iv is io n o f P en guin R an dom H ouse L LC , N ew Y ork . B A NTA M B OOKS a n d t h e H OUSE c o lo phon a re r e g is te re d t r a d em ark s o f P en guin R an dom H ouse L LC . L IB RA RY O F C O NGRESS C A TA LO GIN G-IN -P U BLIC A TIO N D ATA N am es: C oyle , D an ie l, a u th or. T itle : T he c u ltu re c o de : t h e s e cre ts o f h ig hly s u ccessfu l g ro ups / D an ie l C oyle . D esc rip tio n: N ew Y ork : B an ta m , 2 018. | I n clu des i n dex . I d en tif ie rs : L C CN 2 017002507 | I S B N 9 780804176989 ( h ard back ) | I S B N 9 780804177009 ( e b ook) S ubje cts : L C SH : T eam s i n t h e w ork pla ce. | C orp ora te c u ltu re . | L ead ers h ip . | B IS A C: B U SIN ESS & E C O NOM IC S / O rg an iz atio nal B eh av io r. | P SY CH OLO GY / S ocia l P sy ch olo gy. | S E LF-H ELP / P ers o nal G ro w th / G en era l. C la ssif ic atio n: L C C H D66 .C 675 2 018 | D DC 6 58.4 /0 22— dc2 3 L C r e co rd a v aila b le a t http s://lc cn .l o c.g ov/ 2 017002507 I n te rn atio nal e d itio n I S B N   9781524797096 E book I S B N   9780804177009 r a n dom house b ooks.c o m B ook d esig n b y S im on M . S ulliv a n, a dapte d f o r e b ook C over D esig n: P ete G arc eau v 5.1 _r1 e p Conte n ts C over T itle P age C opyrig ht E pig ra ph I n tr o ductio n: W hen T w o P lu s T w o E quals T en Skill 1 · Build S afe ty Chap te r 1 : T he G ood A pple s Chap te r 2 : T he B illio n-D olla r D ay W hen N oth in g H ap pen ed Chap te r 3 : T he C hris tm as T ru ce, t h e O ne-H our E xperim en t, a n d t h e Mis sile ers Chap te r 4 : H ow t o B uild B elo ngin g Chap te r 5 : H ow t o D esig n f o r B elo ngin g Chap te r 6 : I d eas f o r A ctio n Skill 2 · S hare V uln era b ilit y Chap te r 7 : “ T ell M e W hat Y ou W an t, a n d I ’ll H elp Y ou” Chap te r 8 : T he V uln era b ility L oop Chap te r 9 : T he S uper-C oopera to rs Chap te r 1 0: H ow t o C re ate C oopera tio n i n S m all G ro ups Chap te r 1 1: H ow t o C re ate C oopera tio n w ith I n div id uals Chap te r 1 2: I d eas f o r A ctio n Skill 3 · Esta b lis h P urp ose Chap te r 1 3: T hre e H undre d a n d E le v en W ord s Chap te r 1 4: T he H oolig an s a n d t h e S urg eo ns Chap te r 1 5: H ow t o L ead f o r P ro fic ie n cy Chap te r 1 6: H ow t o L ead f o r C re ativ ity Chap te r 1 7: I d eas f o r A ctio n Epilo gue Ded ic a tio n Ackn ow le d gm en ts Note s By D anie l C oyle About t h e A uth or CU LTU RE: f ro m t h e L atin cu ltu s, w hic h m ean s ca re . L et’ s s ta rt w ith a q uestio n, w hic h m ig ht b e th e o ld est q uestio n o f a ll: Why d o c erta in g ro ups a dd u p t o b e g re a te r t h an t h e s u m o f t h eir p arts , w hile o th ers a dd u p t o b e l e ss? A f e w y ears a g o th e d esig ner a n d e n gin eer P ete r S killm an h eld a c o m petitio n t o f in d o ut. O ver s e v era l m onth s, h e a sse m ble d a s e rie s o f f o ur-p ers o n g ro ups a t S ta n fo rd , th e U niv ers ity o f C alif o rn ia , th e U niv ers ity o f T okyo, a n d a f e w o th er p la ces. H e c h alle n ged e ach g ro up to b uild th e ta lle st p ossib le s tr u ctu re u sin g th e f o llo w in g i te m s: • tw en ty p ie ces o f u nco oked s p ag hetti • one y ard o f t r a n sp are n t t a p e • one y ard o f s tr in g • one s ta n dard -s iz e m ars h m allo w The co nte st had one ru le : T he m ars h m allo w had to en d up on to p. T he f a sc in atin g p art o f th e e x perim en t, h ow ev er, h ad le ss to d o w ith th e ta sk th an w ith th e p artic ip an ts . S om e o f th e te am s c o nsis te d o f b usin ess s c h ool s tu den ts . T he o th ers c o nsis te d o f k in derg artn ers . The b usin ess stu den ts g ot rig ht to w ork . T hey b eg an ta lk in g an d th in kin g s tr a te g ic ally . T hey e x am in ed t h e m ate ria ls . T hey t o sse d i d eas b ack a n d f o rth a n d a sk ed th oughtf u l, s a v vy q uestio ns. T hey g en era te d s e v era l o ptio ns, th en h oned t h e m ost pro m is in g id eas. It w as pro fe ssio nal, ra tio nal, an d in te llig en t. T he p ro cess re su lte d in a decis io n to purs u e one partic u la r str a te g y. T hen th ey d iv id ed u p t h e t a sk s a n d s ta rte d b uild in g. The k in derg artn ers to ok a d if fe re n t a p pro ach . T hey d id n ot s tr a te g iz e. T hey did not an aly ze or sh are ex perie n ces. T hey did not ask questio ns, pro pose optio ns, o r h one id eas. I n f a ct, th ey b are ly ta lk ed a t a ll. T hey s to od v ery c lo se to one a n oth er. T heir in te ra ctio ns w ere n ot sm ooth o r o rg an iz ed . T hey a b ru ptly gra b bed m ate ria ls fro m o ne a n oth er a n d s ta rte d b uild in g, fo llo w in g n o p la n o r str a te g y. W hen th ey s p oke, th ey s p oke in s h ort b urs ts : “ H ere ! N o, here !” T heir en tir e t e ch niq ue m ig ht b e d esc rib ed a s tr y in g a b unch o f s tu ff t o geth er . If y ou h ad to b et w hic h o f th e te am s w ould w in , it w ould n ot b e a d if fic u lt ch oic e. Y ou w ould b et o n th e b usin ess s c h ool s tu den ts , b ecau se th ey p osse ss th e in te llig en ce, sk ills , an d ex perie n ce to d o a su perio r jo b. T his is th e w ay w e norm ally th in k a b out g ro up p erfo rm an ce. W e p re su m e sk ille d in div id uals w ill co m bin e to p ro duce s k ille d p erfo rm an ce in th e s a m e w ay w e p re su m e tw o p lu s tw o w ill c o m bin e t o p ro duce f o ur. Your b et w ould b e w ro ng. In d ozen s o f tr ia ls , k in derg artn ers b uilt s tr u ctu re s th at av era g ed tw en ty -s ix in ch es ta ll, w hile busin ess sc h ool stu den ts built str u ctu re s t h at a v era g ed l e ss t h an t e n i n ch es. *1 The re su lt is h ard to a b so rb b ecau se it fe els lik e a n illu sio n. W e s e e s m art, ex perie n ced b usin ess sc h ool stu den ts , a n d w e fin d it d if fic u lt to im ag in e th at th ey w ould c o m bin e to p ro duce a p oor p erfo rm an ce. W e se e u nso phis tic ate d , in ex perie n ced k in derg artn ers , a n d w e f in d it d if fic u lt to im ag in e th at th ey w ould co m bin e to pro duce a su ccessfu l perfo rm an ce. B ut th is illu sio n, lik e ev ery illu sio n, h ap pen s b ecau se o ur i n stin cts h av e l e d u s t o f o cu s o n t h e w ro ng d eta ils . We fo cu s o n w hat w e c an s e e— in div id ual s k ills . B ut in div id u al s k ills a re n ot what m atte rs . W hat m atte rs i s t h e i n te ra ctio n. The b usin ess s c h ool s tu den ts a p pear to b e c o lla b ora tin g, b ut in fa ct th ey a re en gag ed in a p ro cess p sy ch olo gis ts c all sta tu s m an ag em en t. T hey a re fig urin g out w here t h ey f it i n to t h e l a rg er p ic tu re : Who i s i n c h arg e? I s i t o ka y t o c ritic iz e so m eo ne’s id ea ? W hat a re th e r u le s h ere ? T heir in te ra ctio ns a p pear s m ooth , b ut th eir underly in g beh av io r is rid dle d w ith in effic ie n cy , hesita tio n, an d su btle co m petitio n. In ste ad of fo cu sin g on th e ta sk , th ey are nav ig atin g th eir uncerta in ty a b out o ne a n oth er. T hey s p en d s o m uch tim e m an ag in g s ta tu s th at th ey fa il to g ra sp th e esse n ce o f th e p ro ble m (th e m ars h m allo w is re la tiv ely heav y, a n d th e s p ag hetti is h ard to s e cu re ). A s a re su lt, th eir fir s t e ffo rts o fte n co lla p se , a n d t h ey r u n o ut o f t im e. The actio ns o f th e k in derg artn ers ap pear d is o rg an iz ed o n th e su rfa ce. B ut when y ou v ie w th em a s a s in gle e n tity , th eir b eh av io r is e ffic ie n t a n d e ffe ctiv e. They a re n ot c o m petin g fo r sta tu s. T hey sta n d sh ould er to sh ould er a n d w ork en erg etic ally to geth er. T hey m ove q uic k ly , s p ottin g p ro ble m s a n d o ffe rin g h elp . They e x perim en t, ta k e ris k s, a n d n otic e o utc o m es, w hic h g uid es th em to w ard effe ctiv e s o lu tio ns. The k in derg artn ers su cceed n ot b ecau se th ey are sm arte r b ut b ecau se th ey work to geth er in a s m arte r w ay . T hey a re ta p pin g in to a s im ple a n d p ow erfu l meth od i n w hic h a g ro up o f o rd in ary p eo ple c an c re ate a p erfo rm an ce f a r b ey ond th e s u m o f t h eir p arts . This b ook i s t h e s to ry o f h ow t h at m eth od w ork s. — Gro up c u ltu re is o ne o f th e m ost p ow erfu l fo rc es o n th e p la n et. W e se n se its pre se n ce in sid e su ccessfu l busin esse s, ch am pio nsh ip te am s, an d th riv in g fa m ilie s, a n d w e s e n se w hen it’ s a b se n t o r to xic . W e c an m easu re its im pact o n th e b otto m lin e. ( A s tr o ng c u ltu re in cre ase s n et in co m e 7 56 p erc en t o ver e le v en years , a cco rd in g to a H arv ard s tu dy o f m ore th an tw o h undre d c o m pan ie s.) Y et th e in ner w ork in gs o f c u ltu re re m ain m yste rio us. W e a ll w an t s tr o ng c u ltu re in our o rg an iz atio ns, c o m munitie s, a n d f a m ilie s. W e a ll k now t h at i t w ork s. W e j u st don’t k now q uite how i t w ork s. The r e aso n m ay b e b ase d in th e w ay w e th in k a b out c u ltu re . W e te n d to th in k ab out i t a s a g ro up t r a it, l ik e D NA. S tr o ng, w ell- e sta b lis h ed c u ltu re s l ik e t h ose o f Google , D is n ey , a n d th e N av y S E A Ls fe el s o s in gula r a n d d is tin ctiv e th at th ey se em fix ed , so m eh ow pre d estin ed . In th is w ay of th in kin g, cu ltu re is a posse ssio n d ete rm in ed b y fa te . S om e g ro ups h av e th e g if t o f str o ng cu ltu re ; oth ers d on’t. This b ook ta k es a d if fe re n t a p pro ach . I s p en t th e la st fo ur y ears v is itin g a n d re se arc h in g e ig ht o f th e w orld ’s m ost s u ccessfu l g ro ups, in clu din g a s p ecia l- o ps milita ry unit, an in ner-c ity sc h ool, a pro fe ssio nal bask etb all te am , a m ovie stu dio , a c o m ed y tr o upe, a g an g o f je w el th ie v es, a n d o th ers . *2 I f o und th at th eir cu ltu re s a re c re ate d b y a s p ecif ic s e t o f s k ills . T hese s k ills , w hic h ta p in to th e pow er o f o ur s o cia l b ra in s t o c re ate i n te ra ctio ns e x actly l ik e t h e o nes u se d b y t h e kin derg artn ers b uild in g t h e s p ag hetti t o w er, f o rm t h e s tr u ctu re o f t h is b ook. S kill 1— Build Safe ty — ex plo re s how sig nals of co nnectio n gen era te bonds of belo ngin g a n d id en tity . S kill 2 — Share V uln era b ility — ex pla in s h ow h ab its o f mutu al ris k d riv e tr u stin g co opera tio n. S kill 3 — Esta b lis h P urp ose — te lls h ow narra tiv es c re ate s h are d g oals a n d v alu es. T he t h re e s k ills w ork t o geth er f ro m t h e botto m u p, fir s t b uild in g g ro up c o nnectio n a n d th en c h an nelin g it in to a ctio n. Each p art o f th e b ook is s tr u ctu re d lik e a to ur: W e’ll f ir s t e x plo re h ow e ach s k ill work s, a n d th en w e’ll g o in to th e fie ld to s p en d tim e w ith g ro ups a n d le ad ers who use th ese m eth ods ev ery day . E ach part w ill en d w ith a co lle ctio n of co ncre te s u ggestio ns o n a p ply in g t h ese s k ills t o y our g ro up. In th e fo llo w in g p ag es, w e’ll sp en d tim e in sid e so m e o f th e p la n et’ s to p- perfo rm in g c u ltu re s a n d s e e w hat m ak es th em tic k . W e’ll ta k e a lo ok in sid e th e mach in ery o f t h e b ra in a n d s e e h ow t r u st a n d b elo ngin g a re b uilt. A lo ng t h e w ay , we’ll s e e t h at b ein g s m art i s o verra te d , t h at s h ow in g f a llib ility i s c ru cia l, a n d t h at bein g n ic e is n ot n early a s im porta n t a s y ou m ig ht th in k. A bove a ll, w e’ll s e e how le ad ers o f h ig h-p erfo rm in g c u ltu re s n av ig ate th e c h alle n ges o f a ch ie v in g ex celle n ce in a f a st- c h an gin g w orld . W hile s u ccessfu l c u ltu re c an lo ok a n d f e el lik e m ag ic , th e tr u th is th at it’ s n ot. C ultu re is a se t o f liv in g re la tio nsh ip s work in g t o w ard a s h are d g oal . I t’ s n ot s o m eth in g y ou a re . I t’ s s o m eth in g y ou d o. *1 Team s o f k in derg artn ers a ls o d efe ate d t e am s o f l a w yers ( w ho b uilt t o w ers t h at a v era g ed f if te en i n ch es) as w ell a s t e am s o f C EO s ( tw en ty -tw o i n ch es). *2 I c h ose g ro ups u sin g t h e f o llo w in g q ualif ic atio ns: ( 1 ) t h ey h ad p erfo rm ed i n t h e t o p 1 p erc en t o f t h eir dom ain f o r a t l e ast a d ecad e ( w here a p plic ab le ); ( 2 ) t h ey h ad s u cceed ed w ith a r a n ge o f d if fe re n t pers o nnel; ( 3 ) t h eir c u ltu re h ad b een a d m ir e d b y k now le d geab le p eo ple a cro ss t h eir i n dustr y a n d b ey ond. To h elp g uard a g ain st s e le ctio n b ia s, I a ls o l o oked a t m an y c u ltu re s t h at w ere n ’t s o s u ccessfu l ( s e e p ag e 40 f o r a n e x am ple ). M eet N ic k , a h an dso m e, d ark -h air e d m an i n h is t w en tie s s e ate d c o m fo rta b ly i n a w ood-p an ele d c o nfe re n ce ro om in S eattle w ith th re e o th er p eo ple . T o o utw ard a p peara n ces, he is an ord in ary partic ip an t in an ord in ary m eetin g. This a p peara n ce, h ow ev er, i s d eceiv in g. T he o th er p eo ple i n t h e r o om d o n ot k now i t, b ut h is m is sio n i s t o s a b ota g e t h e g ro up’s p erfo rm an ce. Nic k i s t h e k ey e le m en t o f a n e x perim en t b ein g r u n b y W ill F elp s, w ho s tu die s o rg an iz atio nal b eh av io r a t th e U niv ers ity o f S outh W ale s in A ustr a lia . F elp s h as b ro ught in N ic k to p ortr a y th re e n eg ativ e a rc h ety pes: th e Je rk (a n a g gre ssiv e, d efia n t dev ia n t) , th e Sla ck er (a w ith hold er of effo rt) , an d th e D ow ner (a d ep re ssiv e E ey ore ty pe). N ic k p la y s th ese ro le s in sid e fo rty fo ur-p ers o n g ro ups t a sk ed w ith c o nstr u ctin g a m ark etin g p la n f o r a s ta rt- u p. I n e ffe ct, F elp s in je cts h im in to th e v ario us g ro ups th e w ay a b io lo gis t m ig ht in je ct a v ir u s in to a b ody: t o s e e h ow t h e s y ste m r e sp onds. F elp s c alls i t t h e b ad a p ple e x perim en t. Nic k is r e ally g ood a t b ein g b ad . I n a lm ost e v ery g ro up, h is b eh av io r r e d uces t h e q uality o f th e g ro up’s p erfo rm an ce b y 3 0 to 4 0 p erc en t. T he d ro p-o ff is c o nsis te n t w heth er h e p la y s t h e J e rk , t h e S la ck er, o r t h e D ow ner. “W hen N ic k is th e D ow ner, ev ery body co m es in to th e m eetin g re ally e n erg iz ed . H e a cts q uie t a n d tir e d a n d a t s o m e p oin t p uts h is h ead d ow n o n h is d esk ,” F elp s s a y s. “ A nd th en a s th e tim e g oes b y, th ey a ll s ta rt to b eh av e th at w ay , t ir e d a n d q uie t a n d l o w e n erg y. B y t h e e n d, t h ere a re t h re e o th ers w ith t h eir h ead s d ow n o n t h eir d esk s l ik e h im , a ll w ith t h eir a rm s f o ld ed .” When N ic k p la y s th e S la ck er, a sim ila r p atte rn o ccu rs . “ T he g ro up q uic k ly p ic k s u p o n h is v ib e,” F elp s s a y s. “ T hey g et d one w ith th e p ro je ct v ery q uic k ly , a n d th ey d o a h alf -a sse d jo b. W hat’ s in te re stin g, th ough, is th at w hen y ou a sk th em a b out it a fte rw ard , th ey ’re v ery p ositiv e o n th e s u rfa ce. T hey s a y , ‘ W e d id a g ood j o b, w e e n jo yed i t.’ B ut i t i s n ’t t r u e. T hey ’d p ic k ed u p o n t h e a ttitu de t h at th is p ro je ct re ally d id n’t m atte r, th at it w asn ’t w orth th eir tim e o r e n erg y. I’d gone i n e x pectin g t h at s o m eo ne i n t h e g ro up w ould g et u pse t w ith t h e S la ck er o r th e D ow ner. B ut n obody d id . T hey w ere lik e, ‘O kay , if th at’ s h ow it is , th en we’ll b e S la ck ers a n d D ow ners t o o.’   ” Excep t f o r o ne g ro up. “It’ s th e o utlie r g ro up,” F elp s sa y s. “ T hey fir s t c am e to m y a tte n tio n w hen Nic k m en tio ned th at th ere w as o ne g ro up th at fe lt re ally d if fe re n t to h im . T his gro up p erfo rm ed w ell n o m atte r w hat h e d id . N ic k s a id it w as m ostly b ecau se o f one g uy. Y ou c an se e th is g uy is c au sin g N ic k to g et a lm ost in fu ria te d — his neg ativ e m oves a re n ’t w ork in g lik e th ey h ad in th e o th er g ro ups, b ecau se th is guy c o uld fin d a w ay to flip it a n d e n gag e e v ery one a n d g et p eo ple m ovin g to w ard t h e g oal.” We’ll c all th is p ers o n J o nath an . H e is a th in , c u rly -h air e d y oung m an w ith a quie t, s te ad y v oic e a n d a n e asy s m ile . D esp ite t h e b ad a p ple ’s e ffo rts , J o nath an ’s gro up i s a tte n tiv e a n d e n erg etic , a n d t h ey p ro duce h ig h-q uality r e su lts . T he m ore fa sc in atin g p art, f ro m F elp s’s v ie w , is th at a t f ir s t g la n ce, J o nath an d oesn ’t s e em to b e d oin g a n yth in g a t a ll. “A lo t o f it is re ally s im ple s tu ff th at is a lm ost in vis ib le a t fir s t,” F elp s s a y s. “N ic k w ould sta rt b ein g a je rk , a n d [J o nath an ] w ould le an fo rw ard , u se b ody la n guag e, l a u gh a n d s m ile , n ev er in a c o nte m ptu ous w ay , b ut in a w ay th at ta k es th e d an ger o ut o f th e ro om a n d d efu se s th e situ atio n. It d oesn ’t se em a ll th at dif fe re n t a t fir s t. B ut w hen y ou lo ok m ore c lo se ly , it c au se s so m e in cre d ib le th in gs t o h ap pen .” Over a n d o ver F elp s e x am in es t h e v id eo o f J o nath an ’s m oves, a n aly zin g t h em as if th ey w ere a te n nis se rv e o r a d an ce ste p . T hey fo llo w a p atte rn : N ic k beh av es lik e a je rk , a n d Jo nath an re acts in sta n tly w ith w arm th , d efle ctin g th e neg ativ ity a n d m ak in g a p ote n tia lly u nsta b le s itu atio n fe el s o lid a n d s a fe . T hen Jo nath an p iv ots a n d a sk s a sim ple q uestio n th at d ra w s th e o th ers o ut, a n d h e lis te n s in te n tly a n d re sp onds. E nerg y le v els in cre ase ; p eo ple o pen u p a n d s h are id eas, b uild in g c h ain s o f i n sig ht a n d c o opera tio n t h at m ove t h e g ro up s w if tly a n d ste ad ily t o w ard i ts g oal. “B asic ally , [J o nath an ] m ak es it s a fe , th en tu rn s to th e o th er p eo ple a n d a sk s, ‘H ey , w hat d o y ou th in k o f th is ? ’   ” F elp s s a y s. “ S om etim es h e e v en a sk s N ic k questio ns lik e, ‘ H ow w ould y ou d o th at? ’ M ost o f a ll h e r a d ia te s a n id ea th at is so m eth in g l ik e, Hey, t h is i s a ll r e a lly c o m fo rta ble a nd e n gagin g , and I’m c u rio us about w hat e very b ody e ls e h as to s a y . It w as a m azin g h ow s u ch s im ple , s m all beh av io rs k ep t e v ery body e n gag ed a n d o n ta sk .” E ven N ic k , a lm ost a g ain st h is will, f o und h im se lf b ein g h elp fu l. The s to ry o f th e g ood a p ple s is s u rp ris in g in tw o w ay s. F ir s t, w e te n d to th in k gro up p erfo rm an ce d ep en ds o n m easu ra b le a b ilitie s lik e in te llig en ce, s k ill, a n d ex perie n ce, n ot o n a su btle p atte rn o f sm all b eh av io rs . Y et in th is c ase th ose sm all b eh av io rs m ad e a ll t h e d if fe re n ce. The se co nd su rp ris e is th at Jo nath an su cceed s w ith out ta k in g an y of th e actio ns w e n orm ally a sso cia te w ith a s tr o ng l e ad er. H e d oesn ’t t a k e c h arg e o r t e ll an yone w hat to d o. H e d oesn ’t str a te g iz e, m otiv ate , o r la y o ut a v is io n. H e doesn ’t p erfo rm s o m uch a s c re ate c o nditio ns f o r o th ers t o p erfo rm , c o nstr u ctin g an e n vir o nm en t w hose k ey fe atu re is c ry sta l c le ar: We a re so lid ly c o nnecte d . Jo nath an ’s g ro up s u cceed s n ot b ecau se i ts m em bers a re s m arte r b ut b ecau se t h ey are s a fe r. We d on’t n orm ally th in k o f s a fe ty a s b ein g s o im porta n t. W e c o nsid er s a fe ty to b e th e e q uiv ale n t o f a n e m otio nal w eath er sy ste m — notic eab le b ut h ard ly a dif fe re n ce m ak er. B ut w hat w e s e e h ere g iv es u s a w in dow in to a p ow erfu l id ea. Safe ty is n ot m ere e m otio nal w eath er b ut r a th er th e f o undatio n o n w hic h s tr o ng cu ltu re i s b uilt. T he d eep er q uestio ns a re , Where d oes i t c o m e f r o m ? A nd h ow d o yo u g o a bout b uild in g i t? — When you ask peo ple in sid e hig hly su ccessfu l gro ups to desc rib e th eir re la tio nsh ip w ith o ne a n oth er, th ey a ll te n d to c h oose th e s a m e w ord . T his w ord is n ot fr ie n ds o r te a m o r tr ib e o r a n y o th er e q ually p la u sib le t e rm . T he w ord t h ey use is fa m ily . W hat’ s m ore , th ey te n d to desc rib e th e fe elin g of th ose re la tio nsh ip s i n t h e s a m e w ay . * “I c an ’t e x pla in i t, b ut t h in gs j u st f e el r ig ht. I ’v e a ctu ally t r ie d t o q uit a c o uple tim es, b ut I k eep c o m in g b ack t o i t. T here ’s n o f e elin g l ik e i t. T hese g uys a re m y bro th ers .” ( C hris to pher B ald w in , U .S . N av y’s S E A L T eam S ix ) “It’ s n ot ra tio nal. N obody w ho’s p ure ly ra tio nal a b out it d oes th e k in ds o f th in gs th at h ap pen h ere . T here ’s a te am work th at g oes w ay b ey ond te am a n d overla p s i n to t h e r e st o f p eo ple ’s l iv es.” ( J o e N eg ro n, K IP P c h arte r s c h ools ) “It’ s a ru sh , k now in g th at y ou c an ta k e a h uge ris k a n d th ese p eo ple w ill b e th ere to su pport y ou n o m atte r w hat. W e a re a d dic te d to th at fe elin g.” (N ate Dern , U prig ht C itiz en s B rig ad e c o m ed y t r o upe) “W e a re a ll a b out b ein g a f a m ilia l g ro up, b ecau se it a llo w s y ou to ta k e m ore ris k s, g iv e e ach o th er p erm is sio n, a n d h av e m om en ts o f v uln era b ility th at y ou co uld n ev er h av e i n a m ore n orm al s e ttin g.” ( D uan e B ra y , I D EO d esig n) When I v is ite d th ese g ro ups, I n otic ed a d is tin ct p atte rn o f in te ra ctio n. T he patte rn w as lo cate d not in th e big th in gs but in little m om en ts of so cia l co nnectio n. T hese in te ra ctio ns w ere c o nsis te n t w heth er th e g ro up w as a m ilita ry unit o r a m ovie s tu dio o r a n i n ner-c ity s c h ool. I m ad e a l is t: • Clo se p hysic al p ro xim ity , o fte n i n c ir c le s • Pro fu se a m ounts o f e y e c o nta ct • Physic al t o uch ( h an dsh ak es, f is t b um ps, h ugs) • Lots o f s h ort, e n erg etic e x ch an ges ( n o l o ng s p eech es) • Hig h l e v els o f m ix in g; e v ery one t a lk s t o e v ery one • Few i n te rru ptio ns • Lots o f q uestio ns • In te n siv e, a ctiv e l is te n in g • Hum or, l a u ghte r • Sm all, a tte n tiv e c o urte sie s ( th an k-y ous, o pen in g d oors , e tc .) One m ore th in g: I fo und th at s p en din g tim e in sid e th ese g ro ups w as a lm ost physic ally a d dic tiv e. I w ould e x te n d m y re p ortin g tr ip s, in ven tin g e x cu se s to stic k a ro und f o r a n oth er d ay o r t w o. I f o und m yse lf d ay dre am in g a b out c h an gin g occu patio ns so I co uld ap ply fo r a jo b w ith th em . T here w as so m eth in g ir re sis tib le ab out bein g aro und th ese gro ups th at m ad e m e cra v e m ore co nnectio n. The te rm w e u se to d esc rib e th is k in d o f in te ra ctio n is ch em is tr y . W hen y ou en co unte r a g ro up w ith g ood c h em is tr y , y ou k now i t i n sta n tly . I t’ s a p ara d oxic al, pow erfu l s e n sa tio n, a c o m bin atio n o f e x cite m en t a n d d eep c o m fo rt th at s p ark s myste rio usly w ith c erta in s p ecia l g ro ups a n d n ot w ith o th ers . T here ’s n o w ay to pre d ic t i t o r c o ntr o l i t. Or i s t h ere ? — On th e th ir d f lo or o f a s h in y m odern is tic b uild in g in C am brid ge, M assa ch use tts , a g ro up o f s c ie n tis ts is o bse sse d w ith u nders ta n din g th e in ner w ork in gs o f g ro up ch em is tr y . T he M IT H um an D ynam ic s L ab i s a h um ble s e t o f o ffic es s u rro unded by a rio t o f w ork sh ops a n d o ffic es th at c o nta in , a m ong o th er th in gs, a B ritis h te le p hone b ooth , a m an neq uin w earin g p an ts m ad e o f a lu m in um fo il, a n d w hat ap pears to b e a m in ia tu re ro lle r c o aste r s u sp en ded fro m th e c eilin g. T he la b is ru n b y A le x (S an dy) P en tla n d, a so ft- s p oken c o m pute r sc ie n ce p ro fe sso r w ith brig ht e y es, a b ush y g ra y b eard , a n d th e e asy goin g a ssu re d ness o f a c o untr y docto r. P en tla n d s ta rte d o ut h is c are er s tu dyin g s a te llite p hoto s o f b eav er d en s, esta b lis h in g a re se arc h m eth od th at n ev er re ally c h an ged : u sin g te ch nolo gy to re v eal h id den p atte rn s o f b eh av io r. “H um an s ig nalin g lo oks lik e o th er a n im al s ig nalin g,” P en tla n d s a y s a s w e s it dow n a t a c o ffe e ta b le in h is sm all h om ey o ffic e. “ Y ou c an m easu re in te re st le v els , w ho th e alp ha is , w ho’s co opera tin g, w ho’s m im ic k in g, w ho’s in sy nch ro ny. W e hav e th ese co m munic atio n ch an nels , an d w e do it w ith out th in kin g a b out it. F or in sta n ce, if I le an a fe w in ch es c lo se r to y ou, w e m ig ht beg in m ir ro rin g.” Pen tla n d le an s c lo se r, ra is e s h is b ush y e y eb ro w s, a n d o pen s h is e y es w id er. It’ s a l ittle d is c o ncertin g w hen I f in d m yse lf d oin g i t t o o, a lm ost a g ain st m y w ill. He s m ile s re assu rin gly a n d le an s b ack . “ It o nly w ork s if w e’re c lo se e n ough to physic ally t o uch .” Pen tla n d in tr o duces m e to a sc ie n tis t nam ed O re n L ed erm an , w ho, as it hap pen s, is in th e m id st of an aly zin g a gro up w ork in g on th e sp ag hetti- mars h m allo w c h alle n ge. W e w alk d ow n th e h all to L ed erm an ’s o ffic e to lo ok a t th e v id eo . T he g ro up c o nsis ts o f th re e e n gin eers a n d a la w yer, a n d th eir to w er is co m in g to geth er n ic ely . “ T his g ro up’s p erfo rm an ce is p ro bab ly b ette r th an th e MBA s b ut n ot a s g ood a s th e k in derg artn ers ,” L ed erm an s a y s. “ T hey d on’t ta lk as m uch , w hic h h elp s.” This is n ot ju st L ed erm an ’s o pin io n— it is fa ct. A s w e s p eak , a riv er o f d ata fro m th e g ro up’s p erfo rm an ce is ro llin g a cro ss h is c o m pute r s c re en , in clu din g th e p erc en ta g e o f tim e e ach p ers o n sp en ds ta lk in g, th e e n erg y le v els o f th eir voic es, th eir sp eak in g ra te s, th e sm ooth ness of tu rn ta k in g, th e num ber of in te rru ptio ns, an d th e am ount each p ers o n’s v ocal p atte rn m im ic s th e o th ers . Led erm an h as c ap tu re d th is d ata u sin g a s m all re d p la stic d ev ic e th e s iz e o f a cre d it c ard t h at c o nta in s a m ic ro phone, G PS, a n d a n a rra y o f o th er s e n so rs . The d ev ic e is c alle d a s o cio m ete r. It s a m ple s th e d ata fiv e tim es p er s e co nd an d w ir e le ssly s tr e am s it to a s e rv er, w here it is r e n dere d in to a s e rie s o f g ra p hs. These g ra p hs, P en tla n d in fo rm s m e, a re o nly th e tip o f th e d ata ic eb erg . I f th ey desir e , L ed erm an a n d P en tla n d c an e q uip th e s o cio m ete rs to c ap tu re p ro xim ity an d t h e p erc en ta g e o f t im e e ach p artic ip an t e n gag es i n f a ce-to -fa ce c o nta ct. All in a ll, it is th e k in d o f re al- tim e, d eep -d iv e d ata th at y ou c o uld im ag in e bein g u se d to m easu re p re sid en tia l p ollin g re su lts o r a g olf s w in g. B ut th is is a dif fe re n t k in d o f g am e. T he s o cio m ete r c ap tu re s th e p ro to -la n guag e th at h um an s use t o f o rm s a fe c o nnectio n. T his l a n guag e i s m ad e u p o f b elo ngin g c u es. Belo ngin g cu es are b eh av io rs th at cre ate sa fe co nnectio n in g ro ups. T hey in clu de, am ong o th ers , p ro xim ity , ey e co nta ct, en erg y, m im ic ry , tu rn ta k in g, atte n tio n, b ody la n guag e, v ocal p itc h , co nsis te n cy o f em phasis , an d w heth er ev ery one ta lk s to e v ery one e ls e in th e g ro up. L ik e a n y la n guag e, b elo ngin g c u es can ’t b e re d uced to a n is o la te d m om en t b ut ra th er c o nsis t o f a s te ad y p uls e o f in te ra ctio ns w ith in a s o cia l r e la tio nsh ip . T heir f u nctio n is to a n sw er th e a n cie n t, ev er-p re se n t q uestio ns g lo w in g in o ur b ra in s: Are w e sa fe h ere ? W hat’ s o ur fu tu re w ith t h ese p eo ple ? A re t h ere d angers l u rk in g? “M odern so cie ty is a n in cre d ib ly re cen t p hen om en on,” P en tla n d sa y s. “ F or hundre d s o f th ousa n ds o f y ears , w e n eed ed w ay s to d ev elo p c o hesio n b ecau se we d ep en ded so m uch o n each o th er. W e u se d sig nals lo ng b efo re w e u se d la n guag e, a n d o ur u nco nsc io us b ra in s a re in cre d ib ly a ttu ned to c erta in ty pes o f beh av io rs .” Belo ngin g c u es p osse ss t h re e b asic q ualitie s: 1. Energ y: T hey i n vest i n t h e e x ch an ge t h at i s o ccu rrin g 2. In div id ualiz atio n: T hey t r e at t h e p ers o n a s u niq ue a n d v alu ed 3. Futu re o rie n ta tio n: T hey s ig nal t h e r e la tio nsh ip w ill c o ntin ue These c u es a d d u p to a m essa g e th at c an b e d esc rib ed w ith a s in gle p hra se : You a re s a fe h ere . T hey s e ek t o n otif y o ur e v er-v ig ila n t b ra in s t h at t h ey c an s to p worry in g ab out dan gers an d sh if t in to co nnectio n m ode, a co nditio n calle d psy ch olo gic al s a fe ty . “A s h um an s, w e a re v ery g ood a t r e ad in g c u es; w e a re in cre d ib ly a tte n tiv e to in te rp ers o nal p hen om en a,” sa y s A m y E dm ondso n, w ho stu die s p sy ch olo gic al sa fe ty a t H arv ard . “ W e h av e a p la ce in o ur b ra in th at’ s a lw ay s w orrie d a b out what p eo ple th in k o f u s, e sp ecia lly h ig her-u ps. A s f a r a s o ur b ra in is c o ncern ed , if o ur s o cia l s y ste m r e je cts u s, w e c o uld d ie . G iv en t h at o ur s e n se o f d an ger i s s o natu ra l a n d a u to m atic , o rg an iz atio ns h av e to d o so m e p re tty sp ecia l th in gs to overc o m e t h at n atu ra l t r ig ger.” The key to cre atin g psy ch olo gic al sa fe ty , as Pen tla n d an d Edm ondso n em phasiz e, i s t o r e co gniz e h ow d eep ly o bse sse d o ur u nco nsc io us b ra in s a re w ith it. A m ere h in t o f b elo ngin g is n ot e n ough; o ne o r tw o s ig nals a re n ot e n ough. We a re b uilt to re q uir e lo ts o f s ig nalin g, o ver a n d o ver. T his is w hy a s e n se o f belo ngin g i s e asy t o d estr o y a n d h ard t o b uild . T he d ynam ic e v okes t h e w ord s o f Tex as p olitic ia n S am R ay burn : “ A ny j a ck ass c an k ic k d ow n a b arn , b ut i t t a k es a good c arp en te r t o b uild o ne.” It’ s u se fu l to lo ok a t th e b ad a p ple e x perim en t in th is lig ht. N ic k w as a b le to dis ru pt th e ch em is tr y of th e gro ups m ere ly by se n din g a fe w cu es of nonbelo ngin g. H is b eh av io r w as a p ow erfu l s ig nal t o t h e g ro up— We a re n ot s a fe — whic h im med ia te ly c au se d th e g ro up’s p erfo rm an ce to f a ll a p art. J o nath an , o n th e o th er h an d, d eliv ere d a s te ad y p uls e o f s u btle b eh av io rs th at s ig nale d s a fe ty . He c o nnecte d in div id ually , lis te n ed in te n tly , a n d s ig nale d th e im porta n ce o f th e re la tio nsh ip . H e w as a w ells p rin g o f b elo ngin g c u es, a n d th e g ro up re sp onded acco rd in gly . In re cen t y ears , P en tla n d a n d h is te am h av e u se d s o cio m ete rs to c ap tu re th e in te ra ctio ns o f h undre d s o f g ro ups in p ost- o p w ard s, c all c en te rs , b an ks, s a la ry neg otia tio ns, an d b usin ess p itc h se ssio ns. In each stu dy, th ey d is c o vere d th e sa m e patte rn : It’ s possib le to pre d ic t perfo rm an ce by ig norin g all th e in fo rm atio nal c o nte n t in th e e x ch an ge a n d fo cu sin g o n a h an dfu l o f b elo ngin g cu es. For e x am ple , P en tla n d a n d J a re d C urh an u se d s o cio m ete rs t o a n aly ze f o rty -s ix sim ula te d n eg otia tio ns b etw een p air s o f b usin ess s tu den ts w ho p la y ed t h e r o le o f em plo yee an d b oss. T he ta sk w as to n eg otia te th e te rm s fo r a n ew p ositio n, in clu din g sa la ry , co m pan y car, vacatio n, an d health ben efits . Pen tla n d an d Curh an fo und th at th e fir s t fiv e m in ute s o f s o cio m etr ic d ata s tr o ngly p re d ic te d th e o utc o m es o f th e n eg otia tio ns. I n o th er w ord s, th e b elo ngin g c u es s e n t in th e in itia l m om en ts o f t h e i n te ra ctio n m atte re d m ore t h an a n yth in g t h ey s a id . Anoth er e x perim en t a n aly zed a c o m petitio n in w hic h e n tr e p re n eu rs p itc h ed busin ess id eas to a g ro up o f e x ecu tiv es. E ach p artic ip an t p re se n te d th eir p la n to th e g ro up; th e g ro up th en se le cte d an d ra n ked th e m ost p ro m is in g p la n s fo r re co m men datio n to a n o uts id e g ro up o f a n gel in vesto rs . P en tla n d f o und th at th e so cio m ete rs — whic h tr a ck ed o nly th e c u es e x ch an ged b y p re se n te r a n d a u die n ce an d ig nore d a ll th e in fo rm atio nal c o nte n t— pre d ic te d th e ra n kin gs w ith n early perfe ct a ccu ra cy . I n o th er w ord s, th e c o nte n t o f th e p itc h d id n’t m atte r a s m uch as th e s e t o f c u es w ith w hic h th e p itc h w as d eliv ere d a n d re ceiv ed . (W hen th e an gel in vesto rs vie w ed th e pla n s on pap er— lo okin g only at in fo rm atio nal co nte n t a n d i g norin g s o cia l s ig nals — th ey r a n ked t h em v ery d if fe re n tly .) “T he e x ecu tiv es [lis te n in g to th e p itc h es] th ought th ey w ere e v alu atin g th e pla n s b ase d o n r a tio nal m easu re s, s u ch a s: H ow o rig in al i s t h is i d ea? H ow d oes i t fit th e cu rre n t m ark et? H ow w ell dev elo ped is th is pla n ?” P en tla n d w ro te . “W hile lis te n in g to th e pitc h es, th ough, an oth er part of th eir bra in w as re g is te rin g oth er cru cia l in fo rm atio n, su ch as: H ow m uch does th is pers o n belie v e in th is id ea? H ow c o nfid en t a re th ey w hen s p eak in g? H ow d ete rm in ed are t h ey t o m ak e t h is w ork ? A nd t h e s e co nd s e t o f i n fo rm atio n— in fo rm atio n t h at th e busin ess ex ecu tiv es did n’t ev en know th ey w ere asse ssin g— is w hat in flu en ced t h eir c h oic e o f b usin ess p la n s t o t h e g re ate st d eg re e.” “T his is a d if fe re n t w ay o f th in kin g ab out h um an b ein gs,” P en tla n d sa y s. “In div id uals are n ’t re ally in div id uals . T hey ’re m ore lik e m usic ia n s in a ja zz quarte t, f o rm in g a w eb o f u nco nsc io us a ctio ns a n d r e actio ns to c o m ple m en t th e oth ers i n t h e g ro up. Y ou d on’t l o ok a t t h e i n fo rm atio nal c o nte n t o f t h e m essa g es; you lo ok a t p atte rn s th at s h ow h ow th e m essa g e is b ein g s e n t. T hose p atte rn s co nta in m an y s ig nals th at te ll u s a b out th e re la tio nsh ip a n d w hat’ s re ally g oin g on b en eath t h e s u rfa ce.” Overa ll P en tla n d’s stu die s sh ow th at te am perfo rm an ce is driv en by fiv e measu ra b le f a cto rs : 1. Every one i n t h e g ro up t a lk s a n d l is te n s i n r o ughly e q ual m easu re , k eep in g co ntr ib utio ns s h ort. 2. Mem bers m ain ta in h ig h l e v els o f e y e c o nta ct, a n d t h eir c o nvers a tio ns a n d gestu re s a re e n erg etic . 3. Mem bers c o m munic ate d ir e ctly w ith o ne a n oth er, n ot j u st w ith t h e t e am le ad er. 4. Mem bers c arry o n b ack -c h an nel o r s id e c o nvers a tio ns w ith in t h e t e am . 5. Mem bers p erio dic ally b re ak , g o e x plo rin g o uts id e t h e t e am , a n d b rin g in fo rm atio n b ack t o s h are w ith t h e o th ers . These fa cto rs ig nore ev ery in div id ual sk ill an d attr ib ute w e asso cia te w ith hig h-p erfo rm in g g ro ups, a n d re p la ce th em w ith b eh av io rs w e w ould n orm ally co nsid er s o p rim itiv e a s to b e tr iv ia l. A nd y et w hen it c o m es to p re d ic tin g te am perfo rm an ce, Pen tla n d an d his co lle ag ues hav e calc u la te d noth in g is m ore pow erfu l. “C olle ctiv e in te llig en ce is n ot th at d if fe re n t in so m e w ay s th an ap es in a fo re st,” P en tla n d s a y s. “ O ne [ a p e] is e n th usia stic , a n d th at s ig nal r e cru its o th ers , an d t h ey j u m p i n a n d s ta rt d oin g s tu ff t o geth er. T hat’ s t h e w ay g ro up i n te llig en ce work s, an d th is is w hat p eo ple d on’t g et. Ju st h earin g so m eth in g sa id ra re ly re su lts in a c h an ge in b eh av io r. T hey ’re ju st w ord s. W hen w e s e e p eo ple in o ur peer g ro up p la y w ith a n id ea, o ur b eh av io r c h an ges. T hat’ s h ow in te llig en ce is cre ate d . T hat’ s h ow c u ltu re i s c re ate d .” They’r e ju st w ord s. T his is n ot h ow w e n orm ally th in k. N orm ally , w e th in k word s m atte r; w e th in k th at g ro up p erfo rm an ce co rre la te s w ith its m em bers ’ verb al in te llig en ce an d th eir ab ility to co nstr u ct an d co m munic ate co m ple x id eas. B ut th at assu m ptio n is w ro ng. W ord s are nois e . G ro up perfo rm an ce dep en ds o n b eh av io r th at c o m munic ate s o ne p ow erfu l o vera rc h in g id ea: We a re sa fe a nd c o nnecte d . * Not c o in cid en ta lly , m an y s u ccessfu l g ro ups h av e a d opte d t h e u se o f f a m ily -e sq ue i d en tif ie rs . P eo ple w ho work a t P ix ar a re P ix aria n s, a n d p eo ple w ho w ork a t G oogle a re G oogle rs . I t’ s t h e s a m e w ith Z ap pos (Z ap ponia n s), K IP P ( K IP Pste rs ), a n d o th ers . I n t h e e arly 2 000s, s o m e o f t h e b est m in ds i n A m eric a w ere c o m petin g q uie tly i n a ra ce. T he g oal w as to b uild a so ftw are e n gin e th at c o nnecte d In te rn et u se r s e arc h es w ith ta rg ete d ad vertis e m en ts , an eso te ric -s o undin g ta sk th at w ould p ote n tia lly unlo ck a m ultib illio n-d olla r m ark et. The questio n w as w hic h c o m pan y w ould w in . The o verw helm in g fa v orite w as O vertu re , a w ell- fu nded L os A ngele s o utf it l e d b y a b rillia n t e n tr e p re n eu r n am ed B ill G ro ss. G ro ss h ad p io neere d t h e f ie ld o f I n te rn et ad vertis in g. H e had in ven te d th e pay -p er-c lic k ad vertis in g m odel, w ritte n th e c o de, a n d b uilt O vertu re in to a th riv in g b usin ess th at w as g en era tin g h undre d s o f m illio ns o f d olla rs in p ro fits , as w ell as a re cen t in itia l p ublic o ffe rin g valu ed at one billio n dolla rs . In oth er w ord s, th e co nte st betw een O vertu re a n d its c o m petito rs a p peare d to b e a p ro fo und m is m atc h . T he m ark et h ad p la ced a b illio n-d olla r b et o n O vertu re fo r th e s a m e re aso n th at y ou w ould h av e b et o n th e M BA stu den ts to d efe at th e k in derg artn ers in th e sp ag hetti- m ars h m allo w ch alle n ge: becau se Overtu re posse sse d th e in te llig en ce, e x perie n ce, a n d r e so urc es t o w in . But O vertu re d id n ot w in . T he w in ner o f th is ra ce tu rn ed o ut to b e a s m all, y oung c o m pan y c alle d G oogle . W hat’ s m ore , it’ s p ossib le to is o la te th e m om en t t h at tu rn ed th e r a ce in its f a v or. O n M ay 2 4, 2 002, in G oogle ’s k itc h en a t 2 400 B ay sh ore P ark w ay in M ounta in V ie w , C alif o rn ia , G oogle fo under L arry P ag e p in ned a n ote t o t h e w all. T he n ote c o nta in ed t h re e w ord s: T HESE A DS S UCK In th e tr a d itio nal b usin ess w orld , it w as n ot c o nsid ere d n orm al to le av e n ote s lik e th is in th e co m pan y kitc h en . H ow ev er, Pag e w as not a tr a d itio nal busin essp ers o n. For sta rte rs , he lo oked lik e a se v en th -g ra d er, w ith la rg e, watc h fu l e y es, a b ow l h air c u t, a n d a te n den cy to s p eak in a b ru pt m ach in e-g un burs ts . H is m ain l e ad ers h ip t e ch niq ue, i f i t c o uld b e c alle d a t e ch niq ue, c o nsis te d of s ta rtin g a n d s u sta in in g b ig , e n erg etic , n o-h old s-b arre d d eb ate s a b out h ow to build th e b est s tr a te g ie s, p ro ducts , a n d id eas. T o w ork a t G oogle w as to e n te r a gia n t, c o ntin uous w re stlin g m atc h in w hic h n o p ers o n w as c o nsid ere d a b ove th e fra y . This a p pro ach e x te n ded to th e ra u co us a ll- e m plo yee s tr e et h ock ey g am es in th e p ark in g lo t (“ N o o ne h eld b ack w hen fig htin g th e fo unders fo r th e p uck ,” re calle d o ne p la y er) a n d to th e a ll- c o m pan y F rid ay f o ru m s, w here a n yone c o uld ch alle n ge th e fo unders w ith an y questio n under th e su n, no m atte r how co ntr o vers ia l— an d v ic e v ers a . L ik e th e h ock ey g am es, th e F rid ay fo ru m s o fte n tu rn ed i n to c o llis io n-fille d a ffa ir s . On th e d ay P ag e p in ned h is n ote to th e k itc h en w all, G oogle ’s c o m petitio n with O vertu re w as not goin g w ell. T he pro je ct, w hic h G oogle calle d th e AdW ord s e n gin e, w as s tr u gglin g t o a cco m plis h t h e b asic t a sk o f m atc h in g s e arc h te rm s to a p pro pria te a d s. F or e x am ple , if y ou ty ped in a s e arc h fo r a K aw asa k i H1B m oto rc y cle , y ou’d r e ceiv e a d s f ro m la w yers o ffe rin g h elp w ith y our H -1 B fo re ig n v is a ap plic atio n— pre cis e ly th e k in ds o f fa ilu re s th at co uld d oom th e pro je ct. S o P ag e p rin te d o ut e x am ple s o f th ese f a ilu re s, s c ra w le d h is th re e-w ord verd ic t in cap ita l le tte rs , an d p in ned th e w hole m ess to th e k itc h en b ulle tin board . T hen h e l e ft. Je ff D ean w as o ne o f th e la st p eo ple in G oogle ’s o ffic e to s e e P ag e’s n ote . A quie t, s k in ny e n gin eer f ro m M in neso ta , D ean w as i n m ost w ay s P ag e’s o pposite : sm ile y , s o cia b le , u nfa ilin gly p olite , a n d k now n a ro und th e o ffic e f o r h is lo ve o f cap puccin os. D ean had no im med ia te m otiv e to care ab out th e A dW ord s pro ble m . H e w ork ed in S earc h , w hic h w as a d if fe re n t a re a o f th e c o m pan y, a n d he w as m ore th an b usy n av ig atin g h is o w n u rg en t p ro ble m s. B ut a t s o m e p oin t th at F rid ay a fte rn oon, D ean w alk ed o ver to th e k itc h en to m ak e a c ap puccin o an d s p otte d P ag e’s n ote . H e f lip ped t h ro ugh t h e a tta ch ed p ag es— an d a s h e d id , a th ought flic k ere d th ro ugh h is m in d, a h azy m em ory o f a s im ila r p ro ble m h e’d en co unte re d a w hile b ack . Dean w alk ed b ack to h is d esk a n d s ta rte d tr y in g to fix th e A dW ord s e n gin e. He d id n ot a sk p erm is sio n o r te ll a n yone; h e s im ply d ove in . O n a lm ost e v ery le v el, h is d ecis io n m ad e n o s e n se . H e w as ig norin g th e m ounta in o f w ork o n h is desk i n o rd er t o w re stle w ith a d if fic u lt p ro ble m t h at n o o ne e x pecte d h im t o t a k e on. H e c o uld h av e q uit a t a n y p oin t, a n d n o o ne w ould h av e k now n. B ut h e d id not q uit. I n f a ct, h e c am e in o n S atu rd ay a n d w ork ed o n th e A dW ord s p ro ble m fo r s e v era l h ours . O n S unday n ig ht, h e h ad d in ner w ith h is fa m ily a n d p ut h is tw o y oung c h ild re n to b ed . A ro und n in e P.M ., h e d ro ve b ack to th e o ffic e, m ad e an oth er c ap puccin o, a n d w ork ed th ro ugh th e n ig ht. A t 5 :0 5 A.M . o n M onday , h e se n t o ut a n e m ail o utlin in g a p ro pose d fix . T hen h e d ro ve h om e, c lim bed in to bed , a n d w en t t o s le ep . It w ork ed . D ean ’s fix u nlo ck ed th e p ro ble m , in sta n tly b oostin g th e e n gin e’s accu ra cy sc o re s b y d ouble d ig its . O n th e str e n gth o f th at im pro vem en t an d su bse q uen t o th ers it in sp ir e d , A dW ord s s w if tly c am e to d om in ate th e p ay -p er- clic k m ark et. O vertu re ’s effo rt, ham str u ng by in fig htin g an d bure au cra cy , fa lte re d . I n t h e y ear f o llo w in g D ean ’s f ix , G oogle ’s p ro fits w en t f ro m $ 6 m illio n to $ 99 m illio n. B y 2 014, th e A dW ord s e n gin e w as p ro ducin g $ 160 m illio n p er day , an d ad vertis in g w as pro vid in g 90 perc en t of G oogle ’s re v en ues. T he su ccess of th e A dW ord s en gin e, au th or S te p hen L ev y w ro te , w as “su dden , tr a n sfo rm in g, d ecis iv e, a n d, f o r G oogle ’s in vesto rs a n d e m plo yees, g lo rio us… .I t becam e th e lif e b lo od o f G oogle , fu ndin g ev ery n ew id ea an d in novatio n th e co m pan y c o nceiv ed o f t h ere afte r.” Yet th at w as n ot th e s tr a n ge p art o f th e s to ry . B ecau se in sid e G oogle , th ere re m ain ed o ne k ey p ers o n f o r w hom th is in cid en t d id n’t m ean m uch — fo r w hom th e ev en ts of th at his to ric w eek en d re g is te re d so fa in tly th at he bare ly re m em bere d i t. T hat p ers o n h ap pen ed t o b e J e ff D ean . One d ay in 2 013, G oogle a d vis e r J o nath an R ose n berg a p pro ach ed D ean f o r a book h e w as c o -w ritin g a b out G oogle . R ose n berg w an te d to g et D ean ’s v ers io n of th e s to ry , s o h e s ta rte d in — I w ant to ta lk to y o u a bout th e AdW ord s e n gin e, Larry ’s n ote , th e k itc h en —natu ra lly e x pectin g D ean to p ic k u p o n th e c u e a n d la u nch in to a re m in is c en ce. B ut D ean d id n’t d o th at. In ste ad , h e ju st s ta re d a t Rose n berg w ith a p le asa n tly b la n k ex pre ssio n. R ose n berg , slig htly co nfu se d , kep t g oin g, f illin g i n d eta il a fte r d eta il. O nly t h en d id D ean ’s f a ce d aw n w ith t h e lig ht o f r e co gnitio n— oh y ea h! This is n ot th e re sp onse y ou w ould e x pect D ean to h av e. It is ro ughly th e eq uiv ale n t o f M ic h ael J o rd an f o rg ettin g t h at h e w on s ix N BA t itle s. B ut t h at w as how D ean f e lt a n d h ow h e s till f e els t o day . “I m ean , I r e m em ber th at it h ap pen ed ,” D ean to ld m e. “ B ut to b e c o m ple te ly honest, it d id n’t re g is te r s tr o ngly in m y m em ory b ecau se it d id n’t fe el lik e th at big o f a d eal. I t d id n’t f e el s p ecia l o r d if fe re n t. I t w as n orm al. T hat k in d o f th in g hap pen ed a ll t h e t im e.” It was norm al. Google pers o nnel were in te ra ctin g ex actly as th e kin derg artn ers in th e s p ag hetti- m ars h m allo w c h alle n ge in te ra cte d . T hey d id n ot man ag e th eir sta tu s o r w orry a b out w ho w as in c h arg e. T heir sm all b uild in g pro duced h ig h le v els o f p ro xim ity a n d f a ce-to -fa ce in te ra ctio n. P ag e’s te ch niq ue of ig nitin g w hole -g ro up d eb ate s a ro und s o lv in g to ugh p ro ble m s s e n t a p ow erfu l sig nal o f id en tity a n d c o nnectio n, a s d id th e n o-h old s-b arre d h ock ey g am es a n d wid e-o pen F rid ay fo ru m s. ( Every o ne in th e g ro up ta lk s a nd lis te n s in r o ughly eq ual m ea su re . ) T hey c o m munic ate d in s h ort, d ir e ct b urs ts . ( Mem bers fa ce o ne anoth er, a nd th eir co nversa tio ns a nd g estu re s a re en erg etic .) G oogle w as a hoth ouse o f b elo ngin g c u es; its p eo ple w ork ed s h ould er to s h ould er a n d s a fe ly co nnecte d , im mers e d in th eir p ro je cts . O vertu re , d esp ite its h ead s ta rt a n d th eir billio n-d olla r w ar ch est, w as han dic ap ped by bure au cra cy . D ecis io n m ak in g in volv ed in num era b le m eetin gs an d d is c u ssio ns ab out te ch nic al, ta ctic al, an d str a te g ic m atte rs ; ev ery th in g had to be ap pro ved by m ultip le co m mitte es. Overtu re ’s b elo ngin g s c o re s w ould lik ely h av e b een lo w . “ It w as a c lu ste rfu ck ,” one e m plo yee t o ld Wir e d m ag azin e. G oogle d id n’t w in b ecau se i t w as s m arte r. I t won b ecau se i t w as s a fe r. *1 — Let’ s t a k e a c lo se r lo ok a t h ow b elo ngin g c u es f u nctio n in y our b ra in . S ay I g iv e you a m odera te ly t r ic k y p uzzle w here t h e g oal i s t o a rra n ge c o lo rs a n d s h ap es o n a m ap . Y ou c an w ork o n it a s lo ng a s y ou lik e. A fte r e x pla in in g th e ta sk , I le av e you to y our w ork . T w o m in ute s la te r I p op b ack in a n d h an d y ou a s lip o f p ap er with a h an dw ritte n n ote . I te ll y ou th at th e n ote is fro m a fe llo w p artic ip an t nam ed S te v e, w hom y ou’v e n ev er m et. “ S te v e d id th e p uzzle e arlie r a n d w an te d to s h are a t ip w ith y ou,” I s a y . Y ou r e ad t h e t ip a n d g et b ack t o w ork . A nd t h at’ s when e v ery th in g c h an ges. With out tr y in g, y ou s ta rt w ork in g h ard er o n th e p uzzle . A re as d eep in y our bra in b eg in to lig ht u p. Y ou a re m ore m otiv ate d — tw ic e a s m uch . Y ou w ork more th an 5 0 p erc en t lo nger, w ith sig nif ic an tly m ore en erg y an d en jo ym en t. What’ s m ore , th e g lo w e n dure s. T w o w eek s la te r, y ou a re in clin ed to ta k e o n sim ila r c h alle n ges. In e sse n ce, th at slip o f p ap er c h an ges y ou in to a sm arte r, more a ttu ned v ers io n o f y ours e lf . Here ’s t h e t h in g: S te v e’s t ip w as n ot a ctu ally u se fu l. I t c o nta in ed z ero r e le v an t in fo rm atio n. A ll th e ch an ges in m otiv atio n an d beh av io r you ex perie n ced afte rw ard w ere d ue to th e s ig nal th at y ou w ere c o nnecte d to s o m eo ne w ho c are d ab out y ou. We g et a n oth er e x am ple o f h ow b elo ngin g c u es w ork in a n e x perim en t th at mig ht b e c alle d W ould Y ou G iv e a S tr a n ger Y our P hone? It c o nsis ts o f tw o sc en ario s a n d a q uestio n. SC EN ARIO 1 : Y ou a re s ta n din g i n t h e r a in a t a t r a in s ta tio n. A str a n ger a p pro ach es a n d p olite ly s a y s, “ C an I b orro w y our cellp hone?” SC EN ARIO 2 : Y ou a re s ta n din g i n t h e r a in a t a t r a in s ta tio n. A str a n ger a p pro ach es a n d p olite ly s a y s, “ I’m s o s o rry a b out t h e r a in . Can I b orro w y our c ellp hone?” QUEST IO N: T o w hic h s tr a n ger a re y ou m ore l ik ely t o r e sp ond? At f ir s t g la n ce, th ere ’s n ot a lo t o f d if fe re n ce b etw een th e tw o s c en ario s. B oth str a n gers a re m ak in g a n id en tic al r e q uest th at in volv es a s ig nif ic an t le ap o f tr u st. Besid es, t h e m ore i m porta n t f a cto r h ere w ould s e em t o h av e l e ss t o d o w ith t h em th an w ith yo u ; nam ely your natu ra l dis p ositio n to w ard han din g a valu ab le posse ssio n t o a s tr a n ger. A ll i n a ll, a r e aso nab le p ers o n m ig ht p re d ic t t h at t h e t w o ap pro ach es w ould y ie ld r o ughly e q ual r e sp onse r a te s. A r e aso nab le p ers o n w ould b e w ro ng. W hen A lis o n W ood B ro oks o f H arv ard Busin ess S ch ool perfo rm ed th e ex perim en t, sh e dis c o vere d th at th e se co nd sc en ario c au se d th e r e sp onse r a te to ju m p 4 22 p erc en t. T hose s ix w ord s— I’m s o so rry a bout th e r a in —tr a n sfo rm ed p eo ple ’s b eh av io r. T hey fu nctio ned e x actly th e w ay S te v e’s tip d id in th e p uzzle e x perim en t. T hey w ere a n u nm is ta k ab le sig nal: This is a sa fe p la ce to co nnect. Y ou h an d o ver y our cellp hone— an d cre ate a c o nnectio n— with out t h in kin g. “T hese are m assiv e effe cts ,” sa y s D r. G re g ory W alto n of S ta n fo rd , w ho perfo rm ed th e S te v e’s tip ex perim en t an d o th ers . “T hese are little cu es th at sig nal a r e la tio nsh ip , a n d th ey to ta lly tr a n sfo rm th e w ay p eo ple r e la te , h ow th ey fe el, a n d h ow t h ey b eh av e.” *2 One o f h is m ost v iv id e x am ple s o f th e p ow er o f b elo ngin g c u es is a s tu dy b y an A ustr a lia n g ro up th at e x am in ed 7 72 p atie n ts w ho h ad b een a d m itte d to th e hosp ita l a fte r a s u ic id e a tte m pt. I n th e m onth s a fte r th eir r e le ase , h alf r e ceiv ed a se rie s o f p ostc ard s t h at r e ad a s f o llo w s: Dear It h as b een a s h ort t im e s in ce y ou w ere h ere a t N ew castle M ate r Hosp ita l, a n d w e h ope t h in gs a re g oin g w ell f o r y ou. I f y ou w is h t o dro p u s a n ote , w e w ould b e h ap py t o h ear f ro m y ou. Best w is h es, [s ig natu re ] Over th e n ex t tw o y ears , m em bers o f th e g ro up th at re ceiv ed th e p ostc ard s were r e ad m itte d a t h alf t h e r a te o f t h e c o ntr o l g ro up. “A s m all s ig nal c an h av e a h uge e ffe ct,” W alto n s a y s. “ B ut t h e d eep er t h in g t o re aliz e is th at y ou can ’t ju st g iv e a cu e o nce. T his is all ab out esta b lis h in g re la tio nsh ip s, c o nvey in g th e f a ct th at I ’m in te re ste d in y ou, a n d th at a ll th e w ork we d o t o geth er i s i n t h e c o nte x t o f t h at r e la tio nsh ip . I t’ s a n arra tiv e— you h av e t o keep i t g oin g. I t’ s n ot u nlik e a r o m an tic r e la tio nsh ip . H ow o fte n d o y ou t e ll y our partn er th at y ou lo ve th em ? It m ay b e tr u e, b ut it’ s s till im porta n t to le t th em know , o ver a n d o ver.” This id ea— th at b elo ngin g n eed s to b e c o ntin ually r e fre sh ed a n d r e in fo rc ed — is w orth d w ellin g o n f o r a m om en t. I f o ur b ra in s p ro cesse d s a fe ty lo gic ally , w e would n ot n eed th is ste ad y re m in din g. B ut o ur b ra in s d id n ot em erg e fro m millio ns o f y ears o f n atu ra l s e le ctio n b ecau se th ey p ro cess s a fe ty lo gic ally . T hey em erg ed b ecau se t h ey a re o bse ssiv ely o n t h e l o okout f o r d an ger. This o bse ssio n o rig in ate s in a str u ctu re d eep in th e co re o f th e b ra in . It’ s calle d th e a m ygdala , a n d it’ s o u r p rim ev al v ig ila n ce d ev ic e, c o nsta n tly s c an nin g th e e n vir o nm en t. W hen w e s e n se a th re at, th e a m ygdala p ulls o ur a la rm c o rd , se ttin g o ff th e fig ht- o r-flig ht re sp onse th at flo ods o ur b ody w ith stim ula tin g horm ones, a n d it sh rin ks o ur p erc eiv ed w orld to a sin gle q uestio n: What d o I need t o d o t o s u rv iv e? Scie n ce h as re cen tly d is c o vere d , h ow ev er, th at th e a m ygdala is n ’t ju st a b out re sp ondin g to d an ger— it a ls o p la y s a v ita l r o le in b uild in g s o cia l c o nnectio ns. I t work s lik e th is : W hen y ou r e ceiv e a b elo ngin g c u e, th e a m ygdala s w itc h es r o le s an d s ta rts t o u se i ts i m men se u nco nsc io us n eu ra l h ors e p ow er t o b uild a n d s u sta in your s o cia l b onds. I t t r a ck s m em bers o f y our g ro up, t u nes i n t o t h eir i n te ra ctio ns, an d s e ts th e s ta g e f o r m ean in gfu l e n gag em en t. I n a h eartb eat, it tr a n sfo rm s f ro m a g ro w lin g g uard d og in to a n e n erg etic g uid e d og w ith a s in gle -m in ded g oal: to mak e s u re y ou s ta y t ig htly c o nnecte d w ith y our p eo ple . On b ra in s c an s, t h is m om en t i s v iv id a n d u nm is ta k ab le , a s t h e a m ygdala l ig hts up in a n e n tir e ly d if fe re n t w ay . “ T he w hole th in g flip s,” sa y s Ja y V an B av el, so cia l n eu ro sc ie n tis t a t N ew Y ork U niv ers ity . “ T he m om en t y ou’re p art o f a gro up, th e a m ygdala tu nes in to w ho’s in th at g ro up a n d s ta rts in te n se ly tr a ck in g th em . B ecau se th ese p eo ple a re v alu ab le to y ou. T hey w ere s tr a n gers b efo re , b ut th ey ’re o n y our te am n ow , an d th at ch an ges th e w hole d ynam ic . It’ s su ch a pow erfu l sw itc h — it’ s a b ig to p-d ow n ch an ge, a to ta l re co nfig ura tio n o f th e en tir e m otiv atio nal a n d d ecis io n-m ak in g s y ste m .” All th is h elp s re v eal a p ara d ox a b out th e w ay b elo ngin g w ork s. B elo ngin g fe els lik e it h ap pen s f ro m th e in sid e o ut, b ut in f a ct it h ap pen s f ro m th e o uts id e in . O ur s o cia l b ra in s l ig ht u p w hen t h ey r e ceiv e a s te ad y a ccu m ula tio n o f a lm ost- in vis ib le c u es: We a re c lo se , w e a re s a fe , w e s h are a f u tu re . Here , t h en , i s a m odel f o r u nders ta n din g h ow b elo ngin g w ork s: a s a f la m e t h at need s to b e c o ntin ually f e d b y s ig nals o f s a fe c o nnectio n. W hen L arry P ag e a n d Je ff D ean partic ip ate d in th e w hole -c o m pan y ch alle n ges, th e an yth in g-g oes meetin gs, a n d th e ra u co us h ock ey g am es, th ey w ere fe ed in g th at fla m e. W hen Jo nath an p ro te cte d th e b ad a p ple g ro up fro m N ic k ’s n eg ativ e b eh av io r, h e w as fe ed in g th at fla m e. W hen a str a n ger a p olo giz es fo r th e ra in b efo re a sk in g to borro w y our c ellp hone, s h e is fe ed in g th at fla m e. C ohesio n h ap pen s n ot w hen mem bers o f a g ro up a re s m arte r b ut w hen th ey a re lit u p b y c le ar, s te ad y s ig nals of s a fe c o nnectio n. This m odel h elp s u s a p pro ach b elo ngin g le ss a s a m yste ry o f fa te th an a s a pro cess th at can b e u nders to od an d co ntr o lle d . A g ood w ay to ex plo re th is pro cess is by ex am in in g th re e situ atio ns w here belo ngin g fo rm ed desp ite overw helm in g o dds. T he f ir s t in volv es s o ld ie rs in F la n ders d urin g th e w in te r o f 1914. T he se co nd in volv es offic e w ork ers in B an galo re , In dia . The th ir d in volv es w hat m ig ht b e t h e w ors t c u ltu re o n t h e p la n et. *1 The G oogle /O vertu re p atte rn i s n ot u niq ue t o t h em . I n t h e 1 990s, s o cio lo gis ts J a m es B aro n a n d M ic h ael Han nan a n aly zed t h e f o undin g c u ltu re s o f n early t w o h undre d t e ch nolo gy s ta rt- u ps i n S ilic o n V alle y . They f o und t h at m ost f o llo w ed o ne o f t h re e b asic m odels : t h e s ta r m odel, t h e p ro fe ssio nal m odel, a n d t h e co m mitm en t m odel. T he s ta r m odel f o cu se d o n f in din g a n d h ir in g t h e b rig hte st p eo ple . T he p ro fe ssio nal model f o cu se d o n b uild in g t h e g ro up a ro und s p ecif ic s k ill s e ts . T he c o m mitm en t m odel, o n t h e o th er han d, f o cu se d o n d ev elo pin g a g ro up w ith s h are d v alu es a n d s tr o ng e m otio nal b onds. O f t h ese , t h e co m mitm en t m odel c o nsis te n tly l e d t o t h e h ig hest r a te s o f s u ccess. D urin g t h e t e ch -b ubble b urs t o f 2 000, th e s ta rt- u ps t h at u se d t h e c o m mitm en t m odel s u rv iv ed a t a v astly h ig her r a te t h an t h e o th er t w o m odels , an d a ch ie v ed i n itia l p ublic o ffe rin gs t h re e t im es m ore o fte n . *2 Here ’s a h an dy u se o f t h is e ffe ct: T hin kin g a b out y our a n cesto rs m ak es y ou s m arte r. A r e se arc h t e am l e d by P ete r F is c h er f o und t h at s p en din g a f e w m in ute s c o nte m pla tin g y our f a m ily t r e e ( a s o ppose d t o co nte m pla tin g a f rie n d, o r a s h oppin g l is t, o r n oth in g a t a ll) s ig nif ic an tly b ooste d p erfo rm an ce o n t e sts o f co gnitiv e i n te llig en ce. T heir h ypoth esis i s t h at t h in kin g a b out o ur c o nnectio ns t o t h e g ro up i n cre ase s o ur fe elin gs o f a u to nom y a n d c o ntr o l. T he C hris tm as T ru ce O f a ll th e d if fic u lt a n d d an gero us b attle fie ld s in h is to ry , th e F la n ders tr e n ch es d urin g th e w in te r o f 1 914 m ig ht to p th e lis t. M ilita ry s c h ola rs te ll u s th at th is is d ue to th e fa ct th at W orld W ar I m ark ed th e h is to ric al in te rs e ctio n o f m odern w eap ons a n d m ed ie v al s tr a te g y. B ut in tr u th , it w as m ostly d ue to th e m ud. T he F la n ders tr e n ch es w ere lo cate d belo w se a le v el, dug out of gre asy cla y so w ate rlo gged th at a ra in sto rm c o uld tr a n sfo rm th em in to c an als . T hey w ere c o ld a n d m is e ra b le , a n i d eal b re ed in g g ro und f o r r a ts , f le as, d is e ase , a n d a ll m an ner o f p estile n ce. The w ors t p art, h ow ev er, w as th e c lo se n ess o f th e e n em y. O pposin g tr o ops w ere o nly a f e w h undre d f e et a p art in m an y p oin ts a n d o ccasio nally m uch le ss. ( A t o ne p la ce n ear V im y R id ge, t w o o bse rv atio n p osts s to od s e v en m ete rs a p art.) G re n ad es an d artille ry w ere a co nsta n t th re at; a care le ssly lit m atc h w as an i n vita tio n f o r a s n ip er’s b ulle t. A s f u tu re p rim e m in is te r H aro ld M acm illa n , th en a lie u te n an t in th e G re n ad ie r G uard s, w ro te , “ O ne c an lo ok f o r m ile s a n d s e e n o h um an b ein g. B ut in th ose m ile s o f co untr y lu rk … it se em s th ousa n ds, ev en h undre d s o f th ousa n ds o f m en , p la n nin g a g ain st e ach o th er p erp etu ally so m e n ew d ev ic e o f d eath . N ev er sh ow in g th em se lv es, th ey la u nch at each o th er b ulle t, b om b, a eria l t o rp ed o a n d s h ell.” Ben eath th e m ud r e sid ed d eep er la y ers o f h is to ric al h atr e d b etw een th e A llie s a n d th e G erm an s. E nglis h a n d F re n ch n ew sp ap ers p rin te d fe rv en t m yth s a b out h ow G erm an b arb aria n s w ere m eltin g d ow n in nocen t v ic tim s to m ak e s o ap . F or t h eir part, G erm an sc h oolc h ild re n w ere re citin g E rn st L is sa u er’s “H ym n of Hate ,” w hic h w as o nly s lig htly l e ss s u btle : You w e w ill h ate w ith a l a stin g h ate , We w ill n ever f o rg o o ur h ate , Hate b y w ate r a nd h ate b y l a nd, Hate o f t h e h ea d a nd h ate o f t h e h and, Hate o f t h e h am mer a nd h ate o f t h e c ro w n, Hate o f s e ven ty m illio ns c h okin g d ow n. We l o ve a s o ne, w e h ate a s o ne, We h ave o ne f o e a nd o ne a lo ne— EN G LA N D ! The w ar b eg an in A ugust. A s th e w eek s a n d m onth s p asse d , th e tw o sid es sy ste m atic ally k ille d e ach o th er a n d w ere k ille d , th e b odie s s tr e w n in th e b arb ed wir e of no-m an ’s -la n d. A s C hris tm as ap pro ach ed , voic es in dis ta n t cap ita ls arg ued f o r a te m pora ry c ease -fir e . I n R om e, P ope B en ed ic t a p peale d f o r h olid ay peace; in W ash in gto n, D .C ., a S en ate r e so lu tio n r e q ueste d a tw en ty -d ay b re ak in th e f ig htin g. M ilita ry le ad ers o n b oth s id es s w if tly d eem ed th is id ea im possib le an d in fo rm ed th eir tr o ops to e x pect s u rp ris e a tta ck s o n C hris tm as. A ny s o ld ie r who a tte m pte d t o c re ate a n i llic it t r u ce, t h ey w arn ed , w ould b e c o urt- m artia le d . Then on C hris tm as E ve, so m eth in g hap pen ed . It’ s dif fic u lt to dete rm in e pre cis e ly w here it b eg an , b ut it a p peare d to h av e b een s p onta n eo us, o ccu rrin g in dep en den tly a t s e v era l p la ces a lo ng th e f ro nt. I t s ta rte d w ith s o ngs. S om e w ere Chris tm as c aro ls ; so m e w ere m ilita ry so ngs. In m ost p la ces, th e sin gin g w en t back an d fo rth fo r a w hile , w ith each sid e ap pla u din g o r je erin g th e o th er’s re n ditio ns. Then s o m eth in g e v en s tr a n ger h ap pen ed : T he s o ld ie rs b eg an to c lim b o ut o f th eir tr e n ch es a n d a p pro ach e ach o th er in a f rie n dly w ay . O uts id e a to w n c alle d La C hap elle d ’A rm en tiè re s, E nglis h s o ld ie rs h eard a G erm an v oic e c all o ut, in Englis h , “ I a m a lie u te n an t! G en tle m en , m y lif e is in y our h an ds, f o r I a m o ut o f my t r e n ch a n d w alk in g t o w ard y ou. W ill o ne o f y our o ffic ers m eet m e h alf w ay ?” Rif le m an P erc y J o nes f ig ure d i t w as a s u rp ris e a tta ck . A s h e l a te r w ro te : We c o m men ced p olis h in g u p a m munitio n a n d r if le s a n d g ettin g a ll re ad y f o r s p eed y a ctio n. I n f a ct w e w ere a b out t o l o ose o ff a f e w ro unds a t t h e b ig gest l ig ht w hen … word s w ere h eard ( p ro bab ly th ro ugh a m eg ap hone), “ E nglis h m en , E nglis h m en . D on’t s h oot. You d on’t s h oot, w e d on’t s h oot.” T hen f o llo w ed a r e m ark a b out Chris tm as. T his w as a ll v ery w ell, b ut w e h ad h eard s o m an y y arn s ab out G erm an t r e ach ery t h at w e k ep t a v ery s h arp l o okout. How i t h ap pen ed I d on’t k now , b ut s h ortly a fte r t h is o ur b oys h ad lig hts o ut a n d t h e e n em y t r o ops w ere b usy s in gin g e ach o th er’s so ngs, p unctu ate d w ith t e rrif ic s a lv os o f a p pla u se . T he s c en e f ro m my s e n tr y p ost w as h ard ly c re d ita b le . S tr a ig ht a h ead w ere t h re e la rg e l ig hts , w ith f ig ure s p erfe ctly v is ib le a ro und t h em . T he G erm an tr e n ch es… were i llu m in ate d w ith h undre d s o f l ittle l ig hts . F ar a w ay to t h e l e ft, w here o ur l in es b en t, a f e w l ig hts s h ow ed o ur A Com pan y t r e n ch es, w here t h e m en w ere t h underin g o ut “ M y L ittle Gre y H om e i n t h e W est.” A t t h e c o nclu sio n… th e S ax ons b urs t i n to lo ud c h eers a n d o blig ed w ith s o m e G erm an t u ne. T hey a ls o s a n g one o f t h eir n atio nal a ir s t o t h e t u ne o f “ G od S av e t h e K in g.” W e re p lie d w ith t h e A ustr ia n h ym n, a t w hic h t h e a p pla u se w as t e rrif ic . Back at B ritis h H ig h C om man d, F ie ld M ars h al S ir Jo hn F re n ch re ceiv ed puzzlin g r e p orts th at u narm ed G erm an s o ld ie rs w ere “ ru nnin g f ro m th e G erm an tr e n ch es acro ss to o urs , h old in g C hris tm as tr e es ab ove th eir h ead s.” F re n ch is su ed im med ia te o rd ers to “ p re v en t a n y r e cu rre n ce o f s u ch c o nduct, a n d c alle d th e lo cal c o m man ders to str ic t a cco unt.” H is o rd ers h ad n o e ffe ct. T he tr u ce gre w . T he so ld ie rs in volv ed se em ed to hav e no m ore id ea w hy th is w as hap pen in g th an S ir J o hn F re n ch d id . T hey s a w it h ap pen a n d p artic ip ate d in it, an d it still fe lt u tte rly in ex plic ab le . D ia ris ts o n b oth sid es w ould re fe r to th e su rre ality o f t h e e v en t, m an y d esc rib in g i t a s k in d o f a w ak in g d re am . For m an y y ears , h is to ria n s a ssu m ed th at th e s to ry o f th e C hris tm as T ru ce w as ex ag gera te d , a n i s o la te d i n sta n ce t h at h ad b een i n fla te d b y s o fth ead ed n ew sp ap er write rs . B ut a s th ey d ug d eep er, th ey f o und th e o pposite w as tr u e. T he tr u ce w as fa r b ig ger t h an h ad b een r e p orte d , i n volv in g t e n s o f t h ousa n ds o f m en a lo ng t w o- th ir d s of th e B ritis h -h eld lin e. The in te ra ctio ns in clu ded eatin g, drin kin g, co okin g, sin gin g, p la y in g so ccer m atc h es, ex ch an gin g p hoto s, b arte rin g, an d bury in g th e d ead . *1 In th e a n nals o f h is to ry , th ere a re fe w c ase s w here a ll- o ut vio le n ce piv ote d so sw if tly an d co m ple te ly to fa m ilia l w arm th . T he deep er questio n i s h ow i t h ap pen ed . The tr a d itio nal w ay o f e x pla in in g th e C hris tm as T ru ce is to s e e it a s a s to ry ab out h ow t h e s h are d m ean in g o f t h e h olid ay c an a w ak en t h e b ette r a n gels o f o ur natu re . T his w ay o f th in kin g is a ttr a ctiv e, b ut it fa ils to e x pla in w hat a ctu ally occu rre d . T here w ere ple n ty of oth er battle fie ld s th ro ughout his to ry w here en em ie s e x perie n ced sh are d sp ir itu al h olid ay s, y et d id n ot e n gag e in a n yth in g re m ote ly a p pro ach in g t h is l e v el o f c o nnectio n. The p ic tu re sh if ts , h ow ev er, if w e lo ok a t it th ro ugh th e le n s o f b elo ngin g cu es. O ne o f th e m ost d eta ile d a cco unts c an b e f o und in Tre n ch W arfa re 1 914– 1918 b y T ony A sh w orth . O ver th e c o urs e o f 2 88 p ag es, A sh w orth p ro vid es th e his to ric al eq uiv ale n t o f a slo w -m otio n re p la y o f th e fo rc es th at tr ig gere d th e Chris tm as T ru ce. H e sh ow s th at it b eg an n ot o n C hris tm as b ut w eek s b efo re , when a s te ad y flo w o f in te ra ctio ns c re ate d b onds o f s a fe ty , id en tity , a n d tr u st. Ash w orth lik en s th e a rriv al o f th e C hris tm as T ru ce to “ th e s u dden s u rfa cin g o f th e w hole o f a n ic eb erg , v is ib le to a ll in clu din g n on-c o m bata n ts , w hic h f o r m ost of t h e w ar r e m ain ed l a rg ely s u bm erg ed .” Ash w orth d eta ils th e p hysic al c lo se n ess o f th e tw o s id es. W hile th e c lo se n ess bro ught v io le n ce, it a ls o b ro ught c o nnectio n, th ro ugh th e s m ells o f c o okin g a n d th e s o unds o f v oic es, la u ghte r, a n d s o ngs. S old ie rs o n b oth s id es b ecam e a w are th at th ey f o llo w ed th e s a m e d aily r h yth m s a n d r o utin es o f m eals , r e su pply , a n d tr o op ro ta tio ns. B oth s id es d ealt w ith th e c o m bin atio n o f n um bin g ro utin e a n d ra w te rro r th at m ad e u p m ilita ry lif e . B oth s id es h ate d th e c o ld a n d w et; b oth sid es lo nged fo r h om e. A s A sh w orth p uts it, “ T he p ro cess o f m utu al e m path y am ong a n ta g onis ts w as f a cilita te d b y th eir p ro xim ity in tr e n ch w ar, a n d, f u rth er, was re in fo rc ed a s th e a ssu m ptio ns m ad e b y e ach o f th e o th er’s lik ely a ctio ns were co nfir m ed by su bse q uen t ev en ts . M ore o ver, by gettin g to know th e ‘n eig hbor’ in th e tr e n ch o pposite , e ach a d vers a ry r e aliz ed th at th e o th er e n dure d th e s a m e s tr e ss, r e acte d i n t h e s a m e w ay , a n d t h us w as n ot s o v ery d if fe re n t f ro m him se lf .” Mic ro tr u ces b eg an in e arly N ovem ber. T he B ritis h a n d G erm an s h ad a h ab it of d eliv erin g r a tio ns to th e tr e n ch es a ro und th e s a m e tim e. W hile th e tr o ops a te , th e s h ootin g w ould s to p. T he n ex t d ay th e s a m e th in g h ap pen ed a t p re cis e ly th e sa m e tim e. A nd th e n ex t d ay . A nd th e n ex t. F ro m m eals , th e m ic ro tr u ces s p re ad to o th er b eh av io rs . W hen h eav y ra in fa ll m ad e m ovem en t d if fic u lt, b oth sid es would sto p fig htin g. O n co ld n ig hts in so m e se cto rs , tr o ops fro m b oth sid es would v en tu re fo rth to g ath er d ry s tr a w fo r b ed din g, a n d b oth w ould w ith hold fir e s o th ey c o uld w ork in p eace. T he ta cit c ease -fir e s g re w to in clu de s u pply lin es ( o ff l im its ), l a tr in es ( s a m e), a n d t h e g ath erin g o f c asu altie s a fte r a b attle . Those in te ra ctio ns so und casu al, but in fa ct each in volv es an em otio nal ex ch an ge of unm is ta k ab le cla rity . O ne sid e sto ps sh ootin g, le av in g its e lf ex pose d . T he o th er sid e se n se s th at ex posu re b ut d oes n oth in g. E ach tim e it hap pen s, b oth e x perie n ce th e re lie f a n d g ra titu de o f s a fe c o nnectio n— th ey s a w me . The c o nnectio ns g re w . In se v era l se cto rs , c erta in a re as w ere d esig nate d a s “o ut o f b ounds” fo r sn ip er fir e a n d d esig nate d w ith w hite fla g s. O ne E nglis h artille ry u nit s p oke o f its “ p et s n ip er” o n th e G erm an s id e w ho w ould s e n d h is “g ood n ig ht k is s” e v ery n ig ht p ro m ptly a t n in e-fif te en P.M . , th en s h oot n o m ore until th e fo llo w in g m orn in g. In an oth er se cto r, an E nglis h m ach in e-g unner would s h oot o ut t h e r h yth m o f a p opula r s o ng c alle d “ P olic em an ’s H olid ay ,” a n d his G erm an co unte rp art w ould pro vid e an an sw erin g re fra in . T he tr e n ch es becam e a p etr i d is h o f b elo ngin g c u es. E ach c u e, b y its e lf , w ould n ot h av e h ad much o f a n i m pact. B ut t o geth er, r e p eate d d ay a fte r d ay , t h ey c o m bin ed t o c re ate co nditio ns t h at s e t t h e s ta g e f o r a d eep er c o nnectio n. In th e so ld ie rs ’ a cco unts , it’ s p ossib le to se e th ese c o nnectio ns str e n gth en . One m orn in g a fte r a v io le n t b attle a t th e e n d o f N ovem ber, E dw ard H uls e , a cap ta in in th e S eco nd S co ts G uard , w ro te ab out an im pro m ptu m om en t of em path y. The m orn in g a fte r t h e a tta ck , t h ere w as a n a lm ost t a cit unders ta n din g a s t o n o f ir in g, a n d a b out 6 :1 5 A.M . I s a w e ig ht o r nin e G erm an s h ould ers a n d h ead s a p pear, a n d t h en t h re e c ra w le d out a f e w f e et i n f ro nt o f t h eir p ara p et a n d b eg an d ra g gin g i n s o m e of o ur f e llo w s w ho w ere e ith er d ead o r u nco nsc io us… .I p asse d dow n t h e o rd er t h at n one o f m y m en w ere t o f ir e a n d t h is s e em s t o hav e b een d one a ll d ow n t h e l in e. I h elp ed o ne o f t h e m en i n myse lf , a n d w as n ot f ir e d o n, a t a ll. That in cid en t s e em s to h av e a ffe cte d H uls e . S ev era l w eek s la te r, f ro m a p ost beh in d t h e l in es, h e h atc h ed a p la n . H e w ro te : We r e tu rn t o t h e t r e n ch es t o m orro w , a n d s h all b e i n t h em o n Chris tm as D ay . G erm an s o r n o G erm an s… we a re g oin g t o h av e a ’e ll o f a b ust, i n clu din g p lu m p uddin gs f o r t h e w hole b atta lio n. I hav e g ot a s e le ct l ittle p arty t o geth er, w ho, l e d b y m y s te n to ria n voic e, a re g oin g t o t a k e u p a p ositio n i n o ur t r e n ch es w here w e a re clo se st t o t h e e n em y, a b out 8 0 y ard s, a n d f ro m 1 0 P.M . o nw ard s w e are g oin g t o g iv e t h e e n em y e v ery c o nceiv ab le f o rm o f s o ng i n harm ony, f ro m c aro ls t o T ip pera ry … .M y f e llo w s a re m ost a m use d with t h e i d ea, a n d w ill m ak e a r a re n ois e w hen w e g et a t i t. O ur obje ct w ill b e t o d ro w n t h e n ow f a r t o o f a m ilia r s tr a in s o f “D eu ts c h la n d ü ber A lle s” a n d t h e “ W ach t a m R hein ” w e h ear f ro m th eir t r e n ch es e v ery e v en in g. The G erm an s r e sp onded w ith th eir o w n b arra g e o f s o ngs. S om e w ere s im ila r, an d th e L atin so ngs w ere id en tic al. F ro m a psy ch olo gic al pers p ectiv e, th ey co nvey ed a m ean in g th at b oth sid es u nders to od, a sh are d b urs t o f b elie f a n d id en tity . Huls e w alk ed o ut a n d m et h is c o unte rp art, a G erm an m ajo r. T he G erm an s help ed th e E nglis h b ury th eir d ead , a n d th e G erm an c o m man der h an ded H uls e a med al a n d s o m e le tte rs b elo ngin g to a n E nglis h c ap ta in w ho h ad d ie d a n d f a lle n in to th e G erm an tr e n ch a w eek e arlie r. O verc o m e w ith e m otio n, H uls e to ok o ff his s ilk s c arf a n d h an ded it to th e G erm an . “ It w as a b so lu te ly a sto undin g,” h e la te r w ro te , “ an d if I h ad s e en it o n a c in em ato gra p h film I s h ould h av e s w orn th at i t w as f a k ed !” A f e w m ile s a w ay , n ear P lo eg ste ert W ood, C orp ora l J o hn F erg uso n c ro uch ed in h is t r e n ch , t r y in g t o f ig ure o ut w hat w as h ap pen in g. H e l a te r w ro te : We s h oute d b ack a n d f o rw ard u ntil O ld F ritz [ th e G erm an o ffic er] cla m bere d o ut o f t h e t r e n ch , a n d a cco m pan ie d b y t h re e o th ers o f m y se ctio n, w e w en t o ut t o m eet h im … .“ M ak e f o r t h e l ig ht,” h e c alle d an d a s w e c am e n eare r w e s a w h e h ad h is f la sh l a m p i n h is h an d, puttin g i t i n a n d o ut t o g uid e u s. We s h ook h an ds, w is h in g e ach o th er a M erry X m as, a n d w ere so on c o nvers in g a s i f w e h ad k now n e ach o th er f o r y ears . W e w ere in f ro nt o f t h eir w ir e e n ta n gle m en ts a n d s u rro unded b y G erm an s— Fritz a n d I i n t h e c en tr e t a lk in g, a n d F ritz o ccasio nally t r a n sla tin g t o his f rie n ds w hat I w as s a y in g. W e s to od i n sid e t h e c ir c le l ik e s tr e et- co rn er o ra to rs … .W here t h ey c o uld n’t t a lk t h e l a n guag e t h ey w ere mak in g t h em se lv es u nders to od b y s ig ns, a n d e v ery one s e em ed t o b e gettin g a lo ng n ic ely . H ere w e w ere l a u ghin g a n d c h attin g t o m en whom o nly a f e w h ours b efo re w e w ere t r y in g t o k ill! Huls e an d F erg uso n, lik e so m an y o th ers , w ere asto unded . B ut it w as n ot re ally a sto undin g. A t th e p oin t w hen th e E nglis h a n d th e G erm an s s te p ped o ut onto th at f ie ld , th ey h ad a lr e ad y b een in c o nvers a tio n f o r a lo ng tim e, b oth s id es se n din g v olle y s o f b elo ngin g cu es th at lit u p th eir am ygdala s w ith a sim ple messa g e: We a re th e s a m e. W e a re s a fe . I ’ll g o h alfw ay if y o u w ill. A nd s o th ey did . *2 The O ne-H our E xp erim ent If y ou h ad to p ic k a n e n vir o nm en t th at is th e o pposite o f th e F la n ders tr e n ch es, you m ig ht p ic k t h e W IP R O c all c en te r i n B an galo re , I n dia . W IP R O i s t h e m odel of a s u ccessfu l c all c en te r. I t is o rg an iz ed . I t is h ig hly e ffic ie n t. T he d ay s c o nsis t of t h e s a m e w ork t h at h ap pen s i n c all c en te rs a ll o ver t h e w orld : A c alle r p hones in w ith is su es ab out a d ev ic e o r a se rv ic e, an d W IP R O ’s ag en ts atte m pt to re m ed y it. W IP R O (p ro nounced W HIP -ro w ) is b y a lm ost e v ery m easu re a n ic e pla ce to w ork . It fe atu re s c o m petitiv e sa la rie s a n d h ig h-q uality fa cilitie s. T he co m pan y tr e ats e m plo yees w ell, p ro vid in g g ood f o od, tr a n sp orta tio n, a n d s o cia l activ itie s. B ut i n t h e l a te 2 000s, W IP R O f o und i ts e lf f a cin g a p ers is te n t p ro ble m : Its e m plo yees w ere le av in g in d ro ves, a s m an y a s 5 0 to 7 0 p erc en t e ach y ear. They le ft f o r th e u su al r e aso ns— th ey w ere y oung o r ta k in g a d if fe re n t jo b— an d fo r re aso ns th ey co uld n’t quite artic u la te . A t botto m , th ey la ck ed a str o ng co nnectio n t o t h e g ro up. WIP R O ’s le ad ers in itia lly tr ie d to fix th in gs b y in cre asin g in cen tiv es. T hey booste d sa la rie s, ad ded perk s, an d to ute d th eir co m pan y’s aw ard as one of In dia ’s b est e m plo yers . A ll th ese m oves m ad e s e n se — but n one o f th em h elp ed . Em plo yees k ep t l e av in g a t p re cis e ly t h e s a m e r a te a s b efo re . A nd s o i n t h e f a ll o f 2010, w ith th e h elp o f re se arc h ers B ra d le y S ta ats , F ra n cesc o G in o, a n d D an ie l Cab le , t h ey d ecid ed t o e m bark o n a s m all e x perim en t. The e x perim en t w en t lik e th is : S ev era l h undre d n ew h ir e s w ere d iv id ed in to tw o g ro ups, p lu s th e u su al c o ntr o l g ro up. G ro up o ne re ceiv ed s ta n dard tr a in in g plu s a n a d ditio nal h our th at f o cu se d o n W IP R O ’s id en tity . T hese tr a in ees h eard ab out th e c o m pan y’s s u ccesse s, m et a “ sta r p erfo rm er,” a n d a n sw ere d q uestio ns ab out th eir f ir s t im pre ssio ns o f W IP R O . A t th e e n d o f th e h our, th ey r e ceiv ed a fle ece s w eats h ir t e m bro id ere d w ith t h e c o m pan y’s n am e. Gro up t w o a ls o r e ceiv ed t h e s ta n dard t r a in in g, p lu s a n a d ditio nal h our f o cu se d not o n th e c o m pan y b ut o n th e e m plo yee. T hese tr a in ees w ere a sk ed q uestio ns lik e What is uniq ue about yo u th at le a ds to yo ur happie st tim es and best perfo rm ances a t w ork ? I n a b rie f e x erc is e , t h ey w ere a sk ed t o i m ag in e t h ey w ere lo st a t s e a a n d t o c o nsid er w hat s p ecia l s k ills t h ey m ig ht b rin g t o t h e s itu atio n. A t th e e n d o f th e h our, th ey w ere g iv en a f le ece s w eats h ir t e m bro id ere d w ith th eir nam e a lo ngsid e t h e c o m pan y’s n am e. Sta ats d id n’t e x pect th e e x perim en t to s h ow m uch . H ig h a ttr itio n is th e n orm in th e c all c en te r w orld , a n d W IP R O ’s a ttr itio n ra te s w ere fir m ly in lin e w ith in dustr y av era g es. A nd b esid es, S ta ats w asn ’t in clin ed to b elie v e a o ne-h our in te rv en tio n c o uld m ak e a lo ng-te rm im pact. A fo rm er e n gin eer w ho s p en t th e fir s t y ears o f h is c are er a s a n a n aly st a t G old m an S ach s, h e i s n ’t s o m e p ie -in -th e- sk y a cad em ic . H e k now s h ow t h in gs w ork i n t h e r e al w orld . “I w as p re tty s u re t h at o ur e x perim en t w as g oin g t o s h ow a s m all e ffe ct, i f a n y at all,” S ta ats sa y s. “I sa w th e o nboard in g p ro cess in ra tio nal, tr a n sa ctio nal, in fo rm atio nal te rm s. Y ou s h ow u p a t a n ew jo b o n th e fir s t d ay , a n d th ere ’s a str a ig htf o rw ard p ro cess w here y ou le arn h ow to a ct, h ow to b eh av e, a n d th at’ s all t h ere i s t o i t.” Sev en m onth s la te r th e num bers cam e in , an d S ta ats w as, as he puts it, “co m ple te ly s h ock ed .” T ra in ees fro m g ro up tw o w ere 2 50 p erc en t m ore lik ely th an th ose fro m g ro up o ne a n d 1 57 p erc en t m ore lik ely th an th ose fro m th e co ntr o l gro up to still be w ork in g at W IP R O . The hour of tr a in in g had tr a n sfo rm ed g ro up tw o’s r e la tio nsh ip w ith th e c o m pan y. T hey w en t f ro m b ein g nonco m mitta l t o b ein g e n gag ed o n a f a r d eep er l e v el. T he q uestio n w as w hy. The a n sw er is b elo ngin g c u es. T he tr a in ees in g ro up o ne r e ceiv ed z ero s ig nals th at re d uced th e in te rp ers o nal d is ta n ce b etw een th em se lv es a n d W IP R O . T hey re ceiv ed lo ts o f in fo rm atio n ab out W IP R O an d sta r p erfo rm ers , p lu s a n ic e co m pan y s w eats h ir t, b ut n oth in g t h at a lte re d t h at f u ndam en ta l d is ta n ce. The gro up tw o tr a in ees, on th e oth er han d, re ceiv ed a ste ad y str e am of in div id ualiz ed , fu tu re -o rie n te d , am ygdala -a ctiv atin g b elo ngin g cu es. A ll th ese sig nals w ere sm all— a pers o nal questio n ab out th eir best tim es at w ork , an ex erc is e th at r e v eale d th eir in div id ual s k ills , a s w eats h ir t e m bro id ere d w ith th eir nam e. T hese sig nals d id n’t ta k e m uch tim e to d eliv er, b ut th ey m ad e a h uge dif fe re n ce b ecau se th ey c re ate d a fo undatio n o f p sy ch olo gic al s a fe ty th at b uilt co nnectio n a n d i d en tity . “M y o ld w ay o f th in kin g a b out th is is su e w as w ro ng,” S ta ats s a y s. “ It tu rn s out t h at t h ere a re a w hole b unch o f e ffe cts t h at t a k e p la ce w hen w e a re p le ase d t o be a p art o f a g ro up, w hen w e a re p art o f c re atin g a n a u th en tic s tr u ctu re f o r u s t o be m ore ours e lv es. A ll so rts of ben efic ia l th in gs pla y out fro m th ose fir s t in te ra ctio ns.” I t a lk ed w ith D ilip K um ar, o ne o f t h e o rig in al W IP R O tr a in ees w ho h ad ta k en part in th e e x perim en t. I e x pecte d h im to s h are v iv id m em orie s o f th e s e ssio n, but ta lk in g to h im a b out h is o rie n ta tio n w as a lo t lik e ta lk in g to J e ff D ean a b out fix in g th e A dW ord s en gin e: H is se n se o f b elo ngin g w as so str o ng th at h e’d basic ally f o rg otte n t h at t h e e x perim en t h ad e v er h ap pen ed . “ T o b e h onest, I d on’t re m em ber m uch a b out th at d ay , b ut I r e m em ber it f e lt m otiv atin g,” s a id K um ar. He la u ghed . “I guess it m ust hav e w ork ed , becau se I am still here , an d I defin ite ly l ik e i t.” The O pposit e o f B elo ngin g While it’ s u se fu l to sp en d tim e w ith su ccessfu l c u ltu re s, it’ s e q ually u se fu l to tr a v el to th e o th er e n d o f th e s p ectr u m , to e x am in e c u ltu re s th at fa il. T he m ost in str u ctiv e m ay b e th ose w here th e g ro up fa ils w ith su ch co nsis te n cy th at it ap pro ach es a kin d of perfe ctio n. T his is w here w e fin d th e sto ry of th e Min ute m an m is sile ers . The M in ute m an m is sile ers a re th e 7 50 o r s o m en a n d w om en w ho w ork a s nucle ar m is sile la u nch o ffic ers . T hey a re s ta tio ned a t re m ote a ir fo rc e b ase s in Wyom in g, M onta n a, an d N orth D ak ota , an d th eir jo b, fo r w hic h th ey are ex te n siv ely tr a in ed , is to c o ntr o l s o m e o f th e m ost p ow erfu l w eap ons o n e arth , 450 M in ute m an III m is sile s. T he m is sile s are six ty fe et ta ll, w eig h 80,0 00 pounds, a n d c an tr a v el 1 5,0 00 m ile s p er h our to a n y s p ot o n th e g lo be w ith in th ir ty m in ute s, each d eliv erin g tw en ty tim es m ore ex plo siv e en erg y th an th e Hir o sh im a b om b. The m is sile ers a re p art o f a sy ste m d esig ned in th e la te 1 940s b y G en era l Curtis LeM ay , a la rg er-th an -lif e fig ure w hose m is sio n w as to m ak e th e Am eric an n ucle ar f o rc e a p erfe ctly f u nctio nin g m ach in e. “ E very m an a c o uplin g or tu be; ev ery o rg an iz atio n a ra m part o f tr a n sis to rs , b atte ry o f co nden se rs ,” LeM ay w ro te . “ A ll ru bbed u p, n o c o rro sio n. A le rt.” L eM ay w as c alle d “ T he Toughest C op o f th e W este rn W orld ” b y Life m ag azin e, a n d h is c o nfid en ce w as unbounded . O ne tim e h e s te p ped in to a b om ber w ith a lit c ig ar. W hen a c re w mem ber w arn ed him th at th e bom ber m ig ht ex plo de, LeM ay re p lie d , “It would n’t d are .” LeM ay ’s s y ste m w ork ed w ell e n ough f o r s e v era l d ecad es. B ut in r e cen t y ears fa ilu re s b eg an t o o ccu r w ith i n cre asin g r e g ula rity : • August 2 007: C re w s a t M in ot A ir F orc e B ase m is ta k en ly l o ad ed s ix nucle ar-tip ped c ru is e m is sile s o nto a B -5 2 b om ber, f le w t h em t o B ark sd ale Air F orc e B ase i n L ouis ia n a, a n d a llo w ed t h em t o s it u natte n ded o n a ru nw ay f o r s e v era l h ours . • Decem ber 2 007: M in ot’ s m is sile l a u nch c re w s f a ile d t h e s u bse q uen t in sp ectio n. I n sp ecto rs n ote d t h at a t t h e t im e o f t h e v is it s o m e o f M in ot’ s se cu rity p ers o nnel w ere p la y in g v id eo g am es o n t h eir c ellp hones. • 2008: A P en ta g on r e p ort n ote d “ a d ra m atic a n d u naccep ta b le d eclin e” i n th e a ir f o rc e’s c o m mitm en t t o t h e n ucle ar m is sio n. O ne P en ta g on o ffic ia l was q uote d a s s a y in g, “ It m ak es t h e h air s ta n d u p o n t h e b ack o f m y n eck .” • 2009: T hir ty t o ns o f s o lid r o ck et b ooste rs e n ded u p i n a d itc h n ear M in ot when t h e t r a cto r-tr a ile r c arry in g t h em d ro ve o ff t h e r o ad . • 2012: A f e d era lly f u nded s tu dy r e v eale d h ig h l e v els o f b urn out, f ru str a tio n, ag gra v atio n, a n d s p ousa l a b use i n t h e m is sile er f o rc e, a n d i t s h ow ed t h at co urt- m artia l r a te s i n t h e n ucle ar m is sile f o rc e w ere m ore t h an t w ic e a s hig h a s i n t h e r e st o f t h e a ir f o rc e. A s o ne m is sile er t o ld r e se arc h ers , “ W e don’t c are i f t h in gs g o p ro perly . W e j u st d on’t w an t t o g et i n to t r o uble .” • 2013: M is sile o ffic ers a t M in ot A ir F orc e B ase r e ceiv ed a “ m arg in al” ra tin g— th e e q uiv ale n t o f a D g ra d e— when t h re e o f t h e e le v en c re w s w ere ra te d “ u nqualif ie d .” N in ete en o ffic ers w ere r e m oved f ro m l a u nch d uty a n d fo rc ed t o r e ta k e p ro fic ie n cy t e sts . L ie u te n an t G en era l J a m es K ow als k i, co m man der o f t h e n ucle ar f o rc es, s a y s t h at t h e g re ate st n ucle ar t h re at t o Am eric a “ is a n a ccid en t. T he g re ate st r is k t o m y f o rc e i s d oin g s o m eth in g stu pid .” • 2014: M in ute m an m ain te n an ce c re w s c au se d a n a ccid en t i n volv in g a nucle ar-a rm ed m is sile i n i ts s ilo . Every tim e a f a ilu re o ccu rre d , c o m man ders r e sp onded b y c ra ck in g d ow n. A s Gen era l K ow als k i p ut i t, “ T his i s n ot a t r a in in g p ro ble m . T his i s s o m e p eo ple o ut th ere h av in g a p ro ble m w ith d is c ip lin e.” A fte r th e str in g o f in cid en ts in th e sp rin g o f 2 013, L ie u te n an t C olo nel J a y F old s w ro te t o th e c o m bat c re w a t M in ot th at th ey h ad “ fa lle n … an d it’ s tim e to s ta n d o urs e lv es b ack u p.” H e d esc rib ed “ro t in th e c re w f o rc e” a n d th e n eed to “ cru sh a n y r u le s v io la to rs .” “ W e n eed to hit t h e r e se t b utto n a n d r e str u ctu re t h e c re w f o rc e t o t a k e y ou o ut o f y our c o m fo rt zo nes ( w hic h a re r o tte n c o m fo rt z o nes) a n d r e b uild f ro m th e g ro und u p,” F old s wro te . “ T urn th e T V s o ff a n d w ork h ard o n y our p ro fic ie n cy … .Y ou b ette r b rin g your A -g am e e v ery d ay . Y ou m ust b e r e ad y, o n a m om en t’ s n otic e, f o r a n y e v al, an y te st, a n y f ie ld v is it, a n y c ertif ic atio n, e tc . G one is th e a cad em ic e n vir o nm en t of t h e p ast ( o r t h e e n vir o nm en t w here w e h an ded t h in gs t o y ou o n a s ilv er p la tte r becau se w e th ought th at’ s th e w ay y ou ta k e c are o f th e c re w fo rc e)… .B rin g to my atte n tio n im med ia te ly an y offic er w ho bad m outh s a se n io r offic er, or bad m outh s th e new cu ltu re we’re tr y in g to re co nstr u ct. There will be co nse q uen ces!” Fro m afa r, it lo oked lik e an im pre ssiv e, all- h an ds-o n-d eck , get- to ugh re sp onse . T he p ro ble m w as, n one o f it w ork ed . T he m is ta k es k ep t h ap pen in g. A fe w m onth s a fte r th e F old s m an if e sto , M ajo r G en era l M ic h ael C are y , w ho w as re sp onsib le fo r o vers e ein g th e n atio n’s in te rc o ntin en ta l b allis tic m is sile s, w as fir e d f o r m is c o nduct d urin g a n o ffic ia l tr ip to M osc o w . *3 S oon a fte rw ard a n a ir fo rc e in vestig atio n a t M alm str o m A ir F orc e B ase im plic ate d tw o m is sile ers o n ch arg es o f ille g al p osse ssio n, u se , a n d d is tr ib utio n o f c o cain e, e csta sy , a n d b ath sa lts . W hen in vestig ato rs e x am in ed th e c ellp hones o f th e a ccu se d o ffic ers , th ey unco vere d an ela b ora te sy ste m fo r ch eatin g on pro fic ie n cy te sts , sp ark in g an oth er in vestig atio n th at en ded up im plic atin g th ir ty -fo ur of M alm str o m ’s mis sile ers , p lu s s ix ty m ore w ho k new a b out t h e c h eatin g a n d f a ile d t o r e p ort i t. Every one a g re es th at m is sile er c u ltu re is b ro ken . T he d eep er q uestio n is w hy. If y ou t h in k a b out c u ltu re a s a n e x te n sio n o f a g ro up’s c h ara cte r— its D NA— you te n d to s e e th e m is sile ers a s la zy , s e lf is h , a n d la ck in g in c h ara cte r. T his le ad s to th e ty pe o f g et- to ugh re m ed ie s th e air fo rc e le ad ers h ip atte m pte d , an d th eir fa ilu re le av es y ou o nly to c o nfir m th e o rig in al a ssu m ptio n: T he m is sile ers a re la zy , i m matu re , a n d s e lf is h . How ev er, if w e lo ok a t m is sile er c u ltu re th ro ugh th e le n s o f b elo ngin g c u es, th e p ic tu re s h if ts . B elo ngin g c u es h av e to d o n ot w ith c h ara cte r o r d is c ip lin e b ut with b uild in g a n e n vir o nm en t th at a n sw ers b asic q uestio ns: Are w e c o nnecte d ? Do w e s h are a f u tu re ? Are w e s a fe ? Let’ s t a k e t h em o ne b y o ne. Are w e c o nnecte d ? I t i s h ard t o c o nceiv e o f a s itu atio n o f l e ss p hysic al, s o cia l, an d e m otio nal c o nnectio n th an th at o f th e m is sile ers . T hey s p en d tw en ty -fo ur- hour ro ta tio ns p air e d u p in c h illy , c ra m ped m is sile silo s w ith E is e n how er-e ra te ch nolo gy. “ T hese th in gs h av e b een liv ed in c o ntin uously f o r f o rty y ears ,” o ne mis sile er to ld m e. “ T hey g et c le an ed b ut n ot r e ally . S ew ag e lin es a re c o rro din g. Asb esto s i s e v ery w here . P eo ple h ate b ein g t h ere .” Do w e sh are a fu tu re ? W hen th e silo s w ere b uilt, th e m is sile ers w ere as cru cia l a p art o f A m eric a’s d efe n se a s th eir p ilo t b re th re n ; re ceiv in g a la u nch ord er f ro m th e p re sid en t w as a r e al p ossib ility . S erv in g a s a m is sile er f u nctio ned as a s te p pin g-s to ne fo r a c are er in s p ace c o m man d, a ir c o m bat c o m man d, a n d oth er a re as. B ut t h e e n d o f t h e C old W ar c h an ged t h e m is sile ers ’ f u tu re . T hey a re tr a in in g f o r a m is sio n th at n o lo nger e x is ts . N ot s u rp ris in gly , c are er p ath s o ut o f mis sile s h av e d w in dle d o r v an is h ed e n tir e ly . “T he w ritin g’s o n t h e w all,” s a y s B ru ce B la ir , a f o rm er m is sile er w ho i s n ow a re se arc h sc h ola r a t th e P ro gra m o n S cie n ce a n d G lo bal S ecu rity a t P rin ceto n. “N o o ne w an ts to s ta y in m is sile s. T here ’s n o c h an ce o f p ro m otio n. Y ou’re n ot goin g to m ak e g en era l c o m in g th ro ugh m is sile s. W hat’ s m ore , th e c o m man d h as sh ut dow n so m e of th e optio ns of cro ss-tr a in in g out of nucle ar in to oth er co m man ds, w hic h h as d eliv ere d th e m essa g e th at y ou g uys are stu ck o n th e is la n d o f m is fit t o ys.” “F or th e fir s t c o uple m onth s it’ s k in d o f e x citin g,” a n oth er fo rm er m is sile er to ld m e. “ B ut t h e s h in e s ta rts t o c o m e o ff p re tty q uic k ly . Y ou d o i t o ver a n d o ver ag ain . Y ou r e aliz e, t h is i s n ot g oin g t o c h an ge, t h is i s n ev er g oin g t o c h an ge.” Are w e s a fe ? T he b ig gest r is k in th e m is sile er’s w orld is n ot th e m is sile s b ut th e co nsta n t b arra g e o f p ro fic ie n cy , certif ic atio n, an d n ucle ar-re ad in ess te sts , each o f w hic h re q uir e s n ear-p erfe ctio n a n d e ach o f w hic h m ig ht sc u ttle th eir care er. T hese te sts o fte n in volv e m em oriz in g a f iv e-in ch -th ic k b in der f ille d w ith tw o-s id ed s h eets o f la u nch c o des. M is sile ers m ust s c o re 1 00 p erc en t o n c erta in portio ns o f t h e t e sts , o r e ls e t h ey f a il. “T he c h eck lis ts a re i m possib ly l o ng a n d d eta ile d , b iz arre ly r ig id a n d s tr ic t. I t’ s basic ally in hum an ,” B la ir sa y s. “Y ou’re eith er p erfe ct o r y ou’re a b um . T he re su lt is th at w hen y ou g et o ut o f th e s p otlig ht o f th e a u th ority a n d tr a v el to a re m ote u nderg ro und la u nch c o ntr o l c en te r w ith o ne o th er p ers o n, y ou c lo se th at eig ht- to n b la st d oor b eh in d y ou. A ll th e sta n dard s g et d ro pped , a n d y ou sta rt ta k in g s h ortc u ts .” As o ne m is sile er to ld m e, “ E very d ev ia tio n is tr e ate d a s if it’ s v io la tin g a pre sid en tia l la u nch o rd er. M ak e a c ritic al e rro r? Y ou’re d one. Y ou’re th e s h itty guy. T here i s n o s u ch t h in g a s d oin g a n o uts ta n din g j o b. Y ou e ith er d o i t r ig ht, o r you get punis h ed . If you ad m it a m is ta k e or ask fo r help , you ru in your re p uta tio n. E very one w alk s a ro und lik e s c are d p uppie s. S o y ou g et a fe ed back lo op. S om eth in g b ad h ap pen s, e v ery body s c re am s a n d y ells , th en th ey in stitu te more e v alu atio ns, w hic h m ak es e v ery body m ore d em ora liz ed , m ore t ir e d , s o y ou mak e m ore m is ta k es.” It a ll a d ds u p to a p erfe ctly d esig ned s to rm o f a n tib elo ngin g c u es, w here th ere is n o c o nnectio n, n o f u tu re , a n d n o s a fe ty . S een in th is w ay , m is sile er c u ltu re is not a r e su lt o f a n in te rn al la ck o f d is c ip lin e a n d c h ara cte r b ut o f a n e n vir o nm en t cu sto m -b uilt t o d estr o y c o hesio n. I n deed , t h e f o rm er l a u nch o ffic ers I s p oke w ith were s m art, e lo quen t, th oughtf u l p eo ple w ho s e em ed to h av e fo und s u ccessfu l an d fu lf illin g liv es o nce th ey le ft th e b ro ken m is sile er c u ltu re . T he d if fe re n ce wasn ’t i n t h e c o nte n t o f t h eir c h ara cte r. I t w as i n t h e l a ck o f s a fe ty a n d b elo ngin g in t h eir c u ltu re . It’ s u se fu l to c o ntr a st th e m is sile ers ’ d ysfu nctio nal c u ltu re w ith th at o f th eir nav y co unte rp arts w ho w ork in n ucle ar su bm arin es. A t fir s t g la n ce, th e tw o gro ups s e em r o ughly s im ila r: B oth s p en d v ast a m ounts o f tim e is o la te d f ro m th e re st o f s o cie ty , b oth a re t a sk ed w ith m em oriz in g a n d e x ecu tin g t e d io us p ro to co ls , an d b oth a re o rie n te d to w ard C old W ar n ucle ar d ete rre n ce m is sio ns w hose tim e has p asse d . W here t h ey d if fe r, h ow ev er, i s i n t h e d en sity o f t h e b elo ngin g c u es i n th eir re sp ectiv e en vir o nm en ts . Sailo rs in su bm arin es hav e clo se physic al pro xim ity , ta k e p art in p urp ose fu l a ctiv ity (g lo bal p atr o ls th at in clu de m is sio ns bey ond d ete rre n ce), a n d a re p art o f a c are er p ath w ay th at c an le ad to th e h ig hest positio ns i n t h e n av y. P erh ap s a s a r e su lt, t h e n ucle ar s u bm arin e f le et h as t h us f a r mostly a v oid ed th e k in ds o f p ro ble m s th at p la g ue th e m is sile ers , a n d in m an y case s h av e d ev elo ped h ig h-p erfo rm in g c u ltu re s. So fa r w e’v e e x plo re d th e p ro cess fo r c re atin g b elo ngin g. N ow w e’ll tu rn to th e m ore p ra ctic al q uestio n o f a p ply in g th is p ro cess in th e r e al w orld . W e’ll d o th is b y m eetin g tw o le ad ers w ho b uild b elo ngin g in th eir g ro ups u sin g v astly dif fe re n t b ut e q ually e ffe ctiv e m eth ods. F ir s t, a b ask etb all c o ach w ill g iv e u s a n up-c lo se in sig ht in to th e s k ill o f b uild in g r e la tio nsh ip s. T hen a n u nco nven tio nal re ta il b illio nair e w ill e x pla in h ow h e c re ate s b elo ngin g a t a h ig her le v el th ro ugh sy ste m s a n d d esig n. *1 One s o ld ie r w ho d id n’t a p pre cia te t h e t r u ce w as G erm an c o rp ora l A dolf H itle r, w ho w as i n r e se rv e n ear th e F la n ders f ro nt. “ S uch a t h in g s h ould n ot h ap pen i n w artim e,” h e i s a lle g ed t o h av e s a id t o h is f e llo w so ld ie rs w ho j o in ed i n . “ H av e y ou n o G erm an s e n se o f h onor l e ft a t a ll? ” *2 The f in al c h ap te r o f t h is s to ry i s l e ss i n sp ir in g b ut e q ually i n fo rm ativ e. T he g en era ls o n b oth s id es, o n le arn in g o f t h e t r u ce, p ut a s to p t o i t w ith r e la tiv e e ase . T hey o rd ere d r a id s, r o ta te d t r o ops t o s to p fra te rn iz atio n, a n d s w if tly d estr o yed t h e f o undatio n o f b elo ngin g t h at h ad b een s o i n cre m en ta lly b uilt. T he fo llo w in g C hris tm as b oth s id es f o ught a s u su al. *3 Here i s a n e x cerp t f ro m t h e f o rty -tw o-p ag e a ir f o rc e r e p ort o n C are y ’s m is c o nduct: “ [C are y ] a p peare d dru nk a n d, i n t h e p ublic a re a [ o f t h e Z uric h a ir p ort] , t a lk ed l o udly a b out t h e i m porta n ce o f h is p ositio n a s co m man der o f t h e o nly o pera tio nal n ucle ar f o rc e i n t h e w orld a n d t h at h e s a v es t h e w orld f ro m w ar e v ery day .” I n M osc o w , h e d ra n k h eav ily a n d d urin g a m onaste ry t o ur a tte m pte d t o f is t- b um p h is R ussia n t o ur guid e. H e r e p eate d ly i n te rru pte d h is h osts d urin g t h eir c ere m onia l t o asts t o m ak e h is o w n. H e s o ught o ut th e c o m pan y o f t h ose h e c alle d “ tw o h ot w om en ” a n d a cco m pan ie d t h em t o a b ar c alle d L a C an tin a. Acco rd in g t o t h e r e p ort, h e k ep t a sk in g t h e b an d t o a llo w h im t o c o m e o nsta g e t o s in g a n d p la y g uita r with t h em . T he r e p ort n ote s, “ T he b an d d id n ot a llo w M aj. G en . C are y t o p la y w ith t h em .” T he R ela tio nsh ip M ake r A w hile b ack a w rite r n am ed N eil P ain e s e t o ut to d ete rm in e w ho w as th e b est N atio nal B ask etb all A sso cia tio n co ach of th e m odern era . H e dev is e d an a lg orith m th at u se d p la y er p erfo rm an ce m etr ic s to p re d ic t h ow m an y g am es a t e am sh ould w in . H e c ru nch ed n um bers fo r e v ery N BA c o ach sin ce 1 979 in o rd er to m easu re “w in s ab ove ex pecta tio n”— th at is , th e n um ber o f tim es a c o ach ’s te am w on a g am e th at, m easu re d b y th eir p la y ers ’ s k ills , th ey h ad n o b usin ess w in nin g. H e t h en p lo tte d t h e r e su lts o n a g ra p h. For th e m ost p art, P ain e’s g ra p h p ortr a y s a n o rd erly a n d p re d ic ta b le w orld . T he v ast m ajo rity o f c o ach es w in r o ughly t h e n um ber o f g am es t h ey s h ould w in , g iv en th eir p la y ers ’ ab ilitie s— ex cep t fo r o ne. H is n am e is G re g g P opovic h . C oach o f t h e S an A nto nio S purs , h e r e sid es a lo ne a t t h e f a r r e ach es o f t h e g ra p h, a p la n et u nto h im se lf . U nder h is le ad ers h ip , th e S purs h av e w on n o fe w er th an 1 17 g am es m ore t h an t h ey s h ould h av e, a r a te m ore t h an d ouble t h at o f t h e n ex t- n eare st co ach . T his is w hy th e S purs ra n k as th e m ost su ccessfu l te am in A m eric an s p orts o ver th e la st tw o d ecad es, w in nin g fiv e c h am pio nsh ip s a n d a h ig her perc en ta g e of gam es th an th e N ew E ngla n d Patr io ts , th e St. L ouis C ard in als , o r a n y o th er sto rie d fra n ch is e . T he title o f P ain e’s g ra p h is “ G re g g P opovic h I s I m possib le .” It’ s n ot h ard to f ig ure o ut w hy P opovic h ’s te am s w in , b ecau se th e e v id en ce is i n p la in v ie w o n th e c o urt. T he S purs c o nsis te n tly p erfo rm th e th ousa n d little u nse lf is h b eh av io rs — th e e x tr a p ass, th e a le rt d efe n se , th e tir e le ss h ustle — th at p uts t h e t e am ’s i n te re st a b ove t h eir o w n. *1 “ S elf le ss,” L eB ro n J a m es s a id . “ G uys move, c u t, p ass, y ou’v e g ot a s h ot, y ou ta k e it. B ut it’ s a ll f o r th e te am a n d it’ s nev er a b out th e in div id ual.” P la y in g a g ain st th em , sa id M arc in G orta t o f th e Wash in gto n W iz ard s, “ w as l ik e l is te n in g t o M ozart.” W hat’ s h ard t o f ig ure o ut i s how P opovic h d oes i t. Popovic h , s ix ty -e ig ht, is a h ard -c o re , o ld -s c h ool, u nap olo getic a u th orita ria n , a ste el- s p in ed p ro duct o f th e A ir F orc e A cad em y w ho v alu es d is c ip lin e a b ove a ll. His dis p ositio n has been co m pare d to th at of a dysp ep tic bulld og, an d he posse sse s a te m per th at c o uld b e d esc rib ed a s “ v olc an ic ,” w ith m uch o f th e la v a bein g fu nnele d a t h is s ta r p la y ers . S om e o f h is m ore m em ora b le e ru ptio ns a re co lle cte d o n Y ouT ube, u nder t itle s s u ch a s “ P opovic h Y ells a n d D estr o ys T hia g o Splitte r,” “ P opovic h T ells D an ny G re en to S hut th e F — U p,” a n d “ P opovic h Furio us a t T ony P ark er.” In sh ort, h e e m bodie s a rid dle : H ow d oes a c ra n ky, dem an din g c o ach c re ate t h e m ost c o hesiv e t e am i n a ll o f s p orts ? One c o m mon a n sw er i s t h at t h e S purs a re s m art a b out d ra ftin g a n d d ev elo pin g unse lf is h , hard w ork in g, te am -o rie n te d in div id uals . This is a te m ptin g ex pla n atio n, b ecau se th e S purs c le arly m ak e a c o ncerte d e ffo rt to se le ct h ig h- ch ara cte r in div id uals . (T heir sc o utin g te m pla te in clu des a ch eck b ox la b ele d “N ot a S pur.” A c h eck in th is b ox m ean s th e p la y er w ill n ot b e p urs u ed , n o matte r h ow t a le n te d h e i s .) But o n c lo se r e x am in atio n, th is e x pla n atio n d oesn ’t a d d u p. M an y o th er N BA te am s m ak e s im ila r e ffo rts to id en tif y , s e le ct, a n d d ev elo p h ard w ork in g, te am – orie n te d , h ig h-c h ara cte r in div id uals . A nd b esid es, a s ig nif ic an t n um ber o f S purs do not ex actly fit th e E ag le Sco ut pro file . W hen B oris D ia w pla y ed fo r Charlo tte , fo r in sta n ce, h e w as critic iz ed fo r b ein g la zy , p arty -o rie n te d , an d overw eig ht; P atty M ills w as r e le ase d b y h is C hin ese te am f o r a lle g ed ly f a k in g a ham str in g in ju ry ; a n d D an ny G re en w as c u t b y C le v ela n d, in p art, f o r h is c asu al ap pro ach t o t e am d efe n se . So t h e S purs a re n ot s im ply s e le ctin g u nse lf is h p la y ers o r f o rc in g t h em t o p la y th is w ay . S om eth in g is m ak in g th eir pla y ers — ev en th ose w ho w ere se lf is h els e w here — beh av e u nse lf is h ly w hen th ey p ut o n a S purs je rs e y . T he q uestio n is what t h at s o m eth in g i s . — It’ s th e m orn in g o f A pril 4 , 2 014, a n d th e m ood in th e S an A nto nio p ra ctic e fa cility is te n se . T he n ig ht b efo re , in o ne o f th e m ost im porta n t g am es o f th e re g ula r s e aso n, t h e S purs w ere t h um ped 1 06–94 b y t h eir a rc h riv al, t h e O kla h om a City T hunder. T he p ro ble m , h ow ev er, w as n ot th e lo ss b ut th e m an ner in w hic h it h ad o ccu rre d . T he g am e h ad s ta rte d o ut p ro m is in gly , w ith t h e S purs r a cin g t o a 20–9 le ad . T hen th e te am h ad im plo ded in a b liz zard o f m is se s a n d tu rn overs , in clu din g s e v era l b y g uard M arc o B elin elli. I t a d ded u p to b e p re cis e ly th e k in d of d em ora liz in g l o ss t h e t e am w an te d t o a v oid a s t h e p la y -o ffs a p pro ach ed . N ow , as p ra ctic e b eg in s, t h ere i s a t ig htn ess i n t h e a ir , a t a ste o f u nease . Gre g g P opovic h w alk s in . H e’s w earin g a m is sh ap en T -s h ir t fro m Jo rd an ’s Snack B ar in E lls w orth , M ain e, a n d sh orts a c o uple siz es to o b ig . H is h air is sp are a n d f riz zy , a n d h e i s c arry in g a p ap er p la te w ith f ru it a n d a p la stic f o rk , h is fa ce se t in a lo psid ed g rin . H e lo oks le ss lik e a c o m man din g g en era l th an a dis h ev ele d u ncle a t a p ic n ic . T hen h e s e ts d ow n h is p la te a n d b eg in s to m ove aro und th e g ym , ta lk in g to p la y ers . H e to uch es th em o n th e e lb ow , th e s h ould er, th e a rm . H e c h ats in s e v era l la n guag es. (T he S purs in clu de p la y ers fro m s e v en co untr ie s.) H e la u ghs. H is e y es a re b rig ht, k now in g, a ctiv e. W hen h e re ach es Belin elli, h is s m ile g ets b ig ger a n d m ore lo psid ed . H e e x ch an ges a fe w w ord s, an d w hen B elin elli j o kes b ack , t h ey e n gag e i n a b rie f m ock -w re stlin g m atc h . I t i s a s tr a n ge s ig ht. A w hite -h air e d s ix ty -fiv e-y ear-o ld c o ach w re stlin g a c u rly -h air e d six -fo ot- fiv e I ta lia n . “I’m s u re th at w as th ought a b out b efo re h an d,” s a y s R . C . B ufo rd , th e S purs ’ gen era l m an ag er, w ho h as w ork ed w ith P opovic h f o r tw en ty y ears . “ H e w an te d to m ak e su re B elin elli w as okay . That’ s th e w ay Pop ap pro ach es ev ery re la tio nsh ip . H e f ills t h eir c u ps.” When P opovic h w an ts t o c o nnect w ith a p la y er, h e m oves i n t ig ht e n ough t h at th eir n ose s n early to uch ; it’ s a lm ost lik e a c h alle n ge— an in tim acy c o nte st. A s warm -u ps c o ntin ue, h e k eep s r o vin g, c o nnectin g. A f o rm er p la y er w alk s u p, a n d Popovic h b eam s, h is f a ce l ig htin g u p i n a t o oth y g rin . T hey t a lk f o r f iv e m in ute s, catc h in g u p o n lif e , k id s, a n d te am mate s. “ L ove y ou, b ro th er,” P opovic h s a y s a s th ey p art. “A lo t o f c o ach es c an y ell o r b e n ic e, b ut w hat P op d oes is d if fe re n t,” s a y s assis ta n t c o ach C hip E ngella n d. “ H e d eliv ers t w o t h in gs o ver a n d o ver: H e’ll t e ll you t h e t r u th , w ith n o b ulls h it, a n d t h en h e’ll l o ve y ou t o d eath .” Popovic h ’s re la tio nsh ip w ith lo ngtim e S purs sta r T im D uncan is a c ase in poin t. B efo re se le ctin g D uncan w ith th e fir s t o vera ll p ic k in th e 1 997 d ra ft, Popovic h f le w to D uncan ’s h om e in S t. C ro ix , U .S . V ir g in Is la n ds, to m eet th e co lle g e s ta r. T hey d id n’t ju st m eet— th ey s p en t fo ur d ay s to geth er tr a v elin g th e is la n d, v is itin g D uncan ’s f a m ily a n d f rie n ds, s w im min g i n t h e o cean , a n d t a lk in g ab out e v ery th in g u nder th e s u n e x cep t b ask etb all. T his is n ot a n orm al th in g f o r co ach es a n d p la y ers to d o; m ost c o ach es a n d p la y ers in te ra ct in sh ort, h ig hly calc u la te d b urs ts . B ut P opovic h w an te d to c o nnect, to d ig in a n d s e e if D uncan was th e k in d o f p ers o n w ho w as to ugh, u nse lf is h , a n d h um ble e n ough to b uild a te am a ro und. D uncan a n d P opovic h e v olv ed in to w hat a m ounts to a fa th er-s o n re la tio nsh ip , a h ig h-tr u st, n o-b ulls h it c o nnectio n th at p ro vid es a v iv id m odel f o r oth er p la y ers , e sp ecia lly w hen it c o m es to a b so rb in g P opovic h ’s h ig h-v olu m e tr u th -te llin g. A s m ore th an o ne S pur p ut it, I f T im c an ta k e P op’s c o ach in g, h ow can I n ot t a k e i t? A f e w m in ute s e arlie r th e S purs h ad g ath ere d in th e v id eo r o om to r e v ie w th e Okla h om a C ity g am e. T hey h ad s a t d ow n w ith tr e p id atio n, e x pectin g P opovic h to d eta il th e s in s o f th e p re v io us n ig ht, to s h ow th em w hat th ey d id w ro ng a n d what th ey c o uld d o b ette r. B ut w hen P opovic h c lic k ed o n th e v id eo , th e s c re en flic k ere d w ith a C N N d ocu m en ta ry o n th e fif tie th an niv ers a ry o f th e V otin g Rig hts A ct. T he te am w atc h ed in s ile n ce a s th e s to ry u nfo ld ed : M artin L uth er Kin g, J r., L yndon J o hnso n, a n d th e S elm a m arc h es. W hen it w as o ver, P opovic h ask ed q uestio ns. H e a lw ay s a sk s q uestio ns, a n d th ose q uestio ns a re a lw ay s th e sa m e: p ers o nal, d ir e ct, f o cu se d o n t h e b ig p ic tu re . What d id y o u t h in k o f i t? W hat would y o u h ave d one i n t h at s itu atio n? The pla y ers th ought, an sw ere d , nodded . The ro om sh if te d an d becam e so m eth in g o f a s e m in ar, a c o nvers a tio n. T hey ta lk ed . T hey w ere n ot s u rp ris e d becau se o n th e S purs th is k in d o f th in g h ap pen s a ll th e tim e. P opovic h w ould cre ate s im ila r c o nvers a tio ns o n th e w ar in S yria , o r a c h an ge o f g overn m en t in Arg en tin a, g ay m arria g e, i n stitu tio nal r a cis m , t e rro ris m — it d oesn ’t r e ally m atte r, as lo ng a s it d eliv ers th e m essa g e h e w an ts it to d eliv er: T here a re b ig ger th in gs th an b ask etb all t o w hic h w e a re a ll c o nnecte d . “It’ s s o e asy to b e in su la te d w hen y ou’re a p ro fe ssio nal a th le te ,” B ufo rd s a y s. “P op u se s th ese m om en ts to c o nnect u s. H e lo ves th at w e c o m e fro m s o m an y dif fe re n t p la ces. T hat c o uld p ull u s a p art, b ut h e m ak es s u re t h at e v ery body f e els co nnecte d a n d e n gag ed t o s o m eth in g b ig ger.” “H ug ’e m a n d h old ’e m ” is th e w ay P opovic h o fte n p uts it to h is a ssis ta n t co ach es. “ W e g otta h ug ’ e m a n d h old ’ e m .” *2 Much o f th at co nnectio n h ap pen s aro und th e d in ner ta b le , as P opovic h is obse sse d w ith f o od a n d w in e. H is o bse ssio n c an b e g au ged i n a n um ber o f w ay s: th e s iz e o f h is h om e w in e c ella r, h is p art o w ners h ip o f a n O re g on v in ey ard , a n d th e c o nsta n t p re se n ce o f th e F ood N etw ork o n h is o ffic e te le v is io n. B ut m ost o f all it can be se en in th e w ay he use s fo od an d w in e as a brid ge to build re la tio nsh ip s w ith p la y ers . “F ood a n d w in e a re n ’t ju st f o od a n d w in e,” B ufo rd s a y s. “ T hey ’re h is v eh ic le to m ak e a n d s u sta in a c o nnectio n, a n d P op i s r e ally i n te n tio nal a b out m ak in g t h at co nnectio n h ap pen .” The Spurs eat to geth er ap pro xim ate ly as ofte n as th ey pla y bask etb all to geth er. F ir s t th ere a re th e te am d in ners , re g ula r g ath erin gs o f a ll th e p la y ers . Then th ere a re s m alle r g ro up d in ners , h an dfu ls o f p la y ers g ettin g to geth er. T hen th ere a re th e c o ach ’s d in ners , w hic h h ap pen e v ery n ig ht o n th e ro ad b efo re a gam e. P opovic h p la n s th em , p ic k in g th e re sta u ra n ts , s o m etim es tw o a n ig ht, to ex plo re . (S ta ff jo ke: B ulim ia is a jo b re q uir e m en t.) T hese a re n ot m eals to b e eate n a n d fo rg otte n . A t th e e n d o f th e s e aso n, e ach c o ach g ets a le ath er-b ound keep sa k e b ook c o nta in in g t h e m en us a n d w in e l a b els f ro m e v ery d in ner. “Y ou’ll b e s ittin g o n th e p la n e, a n d a ll o f a s u dden a m ag azin e la n ds o n y our la p , a n d y ou lo ok u p a n d it’ s P op,” s a y s S ean M ark s, a fo rm er S purs a ssis ta n t co ach w ho’s n ow g en era l m an ag er o f th e B ro okly n N ets . “ H e’s c ir c le d so m e artic le a b out y our h om eto w n a n d w an ts to k now if it’ s a ccu ra te , a n d w here y ou lik e to eat, an d w hat k in d o f w in e y ou lik e to d rin k. A nd p re tty so on h e’s su ggestin g p la ces w here y ou o ught to e at, a n d h e’s m ak in g r e se rv atio ns f o r y ou an d y our w if e o r g ir lf rie n d. T hen y ou g o, a n d h e w an ts t o k now a ll a b out i t, w hat win e y ou h ad , w hat y ou o rd ere d , a n d th en th ere ’s a n oth er p la ce to g o. T hat’ s how i t s ta rts . A nd i t n ev er e n ds.” — One m is c o ncep tio n ab out hig hly su ccessfu l cu ltu re s is th at th ey are hap py, lig hth earte d p la ces. T his i s m ostly n ot t h e c ase . T hey a re e n erg iz ed a n d e n gag ed , but a t t h eir c o re t h eir m em bers a re o rie n te d l e ss a ro und a ch ie v in g h ap pin ess t h an aro und so lv in g h ard p ro ble m s to geth er. T his ta sk in volv es m an y m om en ts o f hig h-c an dor fe ed back , u nco m fo rta b le tr u th -te llin g, w hen th ey c o nfro nt th e g ap betw een w here th e g ro up is , a n d w here it o ught to b e. L arry P ag e c re ate d o ne o f th ese m om en ts w hen h e p oste d h is “ T hese a d s s u ck ” n ote in t h e G oogle k itc h en . Popovic h deliv ers su ch fe ed back to his pla y ers ev ery day , usu ally at hig h volu m e. B ut h ow d o P opovic h a n d o th er le ad ers m an ag e to g iv e to ugh, tr u th fu l fe ed back w ith out c au sin g s id e e ffe cts o f d is se n t a n d d is a p poin tm en t? W hat i s t h e best f e ed back m ad e o f? A f e w y ears b ack a te am o f p sy ch olo gis ts f ro m S ta n fo rd , Y ale , a n d C olu m bia had m id dle sc h ool stu den ts w rite an essa y , afte r w hic h te ach ers pro vid ed dif fe re n t k in ds o f fe ed back . R ese arc h ers d is c o vere d th at o ne p artic u la r fo rm o f fe ed back b ooste d s tu den t e ffo rt a n d p erfo rm an ce s o i m men se ly t h at t h ey d eem ed it “ m ag ic al f e ed back .” S tu den ts w ho r e ceiv ed it c h ose to r e v is e th eir p ap ers f a r more ofte n th an stu den ts w ho did not, an d th eir perfo rm an ce im pro ved sig nif ic an tly . T he fe ed back w as n ot co m plic ate d . In fa ct, it co nsis te d o f o ne sim ple p hra se . I’m g iv in g y ou t h ese c o m men ts b ecau se I h av e v ery h ig h ex pecta tio ns a n d I k now t h at y ou c an r e ach t h em . That’ s it. J u st n in ete en w ord s. N one o f th ese w ord s c o nta in a n y in fo rm atio n on h ow to im pro ve. Y et th ey are p ow erfu l b ecau se th ey d eliv er a b urs t of belo ngin g cu es. A ctu ally , w hen you lo ok m ore clo se ly at th e se n te n ce, it co nta in s t h re e s e p ara te c u es: 1. You a re p art o f t h is g ro up. 2. This g ro up i s s p ecia l; w e h av e h ig h s ta n dard s h ere . 3. I b elie v e y ou c an r e ach t h ose s ta n dard s. These sig nals p ro vid e a c le ar m essa g e th at lig hts u p th e u nco nsc io us b ra in : Here is a sa fe p la ce to g iv e e ffo rt . T hey a ls o g iv e u s in sig ht in to th e re aso n Popovic h ’s m eth ods a re e ffe ctiv e. H is c o m munic atio ns c o nsis t o f th re e ty pes o f belo ngin g c u es. • Pers o nal, u p-c lo se c o nnectio n ( b ody l a n guag e, a tte n tio n, a n d b eh av io r t h at tr a n sla te s a s I c a re a bout y o u ) • Perfo rm an ce f e ed back ( re le n tle ss c o ach in g a n d c ritic is m t h at t r a n sla te s a s We h ave h ig h s ta ndard s h ere ) • Big -p ic tu re p ers p ectiv e ( la rg er c o nvers a tio ns a b out p olitic s, h is to ry , a n d fo od t h at t r a n sla te a s Life i s b ig ger t h an b ask etb all ) Popovic h to ggle s am ong th e th re e sig nals to co nnect h is te am th e w ay a sk ille d d ir e cto r u se s a c am era . F ir s t h e z o om s i n c lo se , c re atin g a n i n div id ualiz ed co nnectio n. T hen h e o pera te s in th e m id dle d is ta n ce, s h ow in g p la y ers th e tr u th ab out th eir p erfo rm an ce. T hen h e p an s o ut to s h ow th e la rg er c o nte x t in w hic h th eir in te ra ctio n is ta k in g p la ce. A lo ne, each o f th ese sig nals w ould h av e a lim ite d e ffe ct. B ut to geth er th ey c re ate a ste ad y str e am o f m ag ic al fe ed back . Every d in ner, ev ery elb ow to uch , ev ery im pro m ptu se m in ar o n p olitic s an d his to ry a d ds u p to b uild a re la tio nal n arra tiv e: You a re p art o f th is g ro up. T his gro up is sp ecia l. I belie ve yo u ca n re a ch th ose sta ndard s . In oth er w ord s, Popovic h ’s y ellin g w ork s, in p art, b ecau se it is n ot ju st y ellin g. It is d eliv ere d alo ng w ith a su ite o f o th er cu es th at affir m an d str e n gth en th e fa b ric o f th e re la tio nsh ip s. — When y ou a sk th e S purs a b out th eir g re ate st m om en t o f te am c o hesio n, m an y o f th em g iv e th e s a m e s tr a n ge a n sw er. T hey m en tio n a n ig ht n ot w hen th e S purs won b ut w hen t h ey s u ffe re d t h eir m ost p ain fu l l o ss. It h ap pen ed o n Ju ne 1 8, 2 013, in M ia m i. T he S purs w ere o n th e v erg e o f win nin g th eir fif th N BA c h am pio nsh ip in a h is to ric u pse t, h av in g b uilt a th re e- gam es-to -tw o le ad in th e b est- o f-s e v en s e rie s a g ain st th e h eav ily f a v ore d M ia m i Heat. G oin g in to th e g am e, th e S purs w ere co nfid en t en ough to p la n fo r a possib le c ele b ra tio n b y b ookin g a la rg e p riv ate r o om a t I l G ab bia n o, o ne o f th eir fa v orite r e sta u ra n ts . Fro m tip -o ff, g am e s ix w as tig ht, a n d th e le ad s w ung b ack a n d fo rth . T hen , to w ard th e e n d o f th e fo urth q uarte r, th e S purs w en t o n a d ra m atic 8 –0 ru n to ta k e a 9 4–89 le ad w ith 2 8.2 se co nds le ft o n th e c lo ck . T he H eat sa g ged ; th e cro w d w en t quie t. T he ch am pio nsh ip se em ed clin ch ed . A cco rd in g to w in – pro bab ility s ta tis tic s, th e o dds o f a S purs v ic to ry a t th at p oin t w ere 6 6:1 . A lo ng th e e d ge o f th e c o urt, s e cu rity p ers o nnel s ta rte d a sse m blin g, ro pes in h an d, to co rd on o ff th e c o urt fo r th e c ele b ra tio n. In th e S purs ’ lo ck er ro om , a tte n dan ts pla ced ch ille d ch am pag ne in ic e tu bs an d ta p ed u p p la stic sh eetin g o ver th e lo ck ers . Then d is a ste r. LeB ro n J a m es a tte m pte d a lo ng s h ot a n d m is se d , b ut th e H eat c o rra lle d th e re b ound a n d Ja m es m ad e a th re e-p oin te r: 9 4–92. T he S purs w ere fo ule d a n d mad e one of tw o en su in g fre e th ro w s, giv in g th em a th re e-p oin t le ad w ith nin ete en s e co nds le ft. M ia m i h ad o ne p osse ssio n le ft to a tte m pt to tie th e g am e. The S purs ’ d efe n se d ug in , p re ssu rin g th e H eat a n d f o rc in g J a m es to tr y a lo ng th re e-p oin te r, w hic h m is se d b ad ly . F or a s e co nd, a s t h e b all c aro m ed h ig h o ff t h e rim , th e g am e s e em ed o ver. T hen M ia m i’ s C hris B osh s n ag ged th e r e b ound a n d flic k ed th e b all to te am mate R ay A lle n in th e c o rn er. A lle n ste p ped b ack a n d sw is h ed a th re e-p oin te r th at s e em ed le ss lik e a b ask et th an a d ag ger. T ie g am e. The co nte st w en t to o vertim e, w here th e n ew ly en erg iz ed H eat k ep t u p th e pre ssu re . T he f in al s c o re w as 1 03–100. T he S purs h ad g one f ro m a lm ost- c erta in vic to ry t o o ne o f t h e m ost d ev asta tin g d efe ats i n N BA h is to ry . The S purs w ere in s h ock . T ony P ark er s a t w ith a to w el o ver h is h ead , c ry in g. “I’v e n ev er s e en o ur t e am s o b ro ken ,” h e s a id l a te r. T im D uncan l a y o n t h e f lo or, unab le to m ove. M an u G in obili c o uld n ot lo ok a n yone in th e fa ce. “ It w as lik e death ,” s a id S ean M ark s. “ W e w ere g utte d .” Pla y ers a n d c o ach es n atu ra lly a ssu m ed th e te am w ould s c ra p th e g ath erin g a t Il G ab bia n o a n d g o b ack t o t h eir h ote l t o r e g ro up. B ut P opovic h h ad o th er p la n s. “P op’s r e sp onse w as, ‘ F am ily !’   ” B re tt B ro w n, th en a n a ssis ta n t c o ach , la te r to ld a r e p orte r. “   ‘E very body t o t h e r e sta u ra n t, s tr a ig ht t h ere .’   ” Popovic h le ft b efo re th e te am , ta k in g a c ar w ith M ark s. W hen th ey re ach ed th e e m pty r e sta u ra n t, P opovic h s ta rte d w ork in g, p re p arin g th e s p ace. H e h ad th e ta b le s m oved — he w an te d t h e t e am t o geth er i n t h e c en te r, w ith c o ach es c lo se b y, su rro unded b y a n o ute r rin g o f fa m ily . H e s ta rte d o rd erin g a p petiz ers , p ic k in g dis h es th at h e k new h is p la y ers w ould lik e. H e c h ose w in e a n d h ad th e w aite rs open i t. T hen h e s a t d ow n. “H e lo oked a s sa d a s I’v e e v er se en a p ers o n lo ok,” M ark s re calls . “ H e’s sittin g i n h is c h air , n ot s a y in g a w ord , s till d ev asta te d . T hen — I k now t h is s o unds weir d — but y ou c an ju st s e e h im m ak e th e s h if t a n d g et p ast it. H e ta k es a s ip o f win e an d a deep bre ath . Y ou can se e him get over his em otio ns an d sta rt fo cu sin g o n w hat t h e t e am n eed s. R ig ht t h en t h e b us p ulls u p.” Popovic h s to od a n d g re ete d e v ery p la y er a s t h ey c am e t h ro ugh t h e d oor. S om e got a h ug, s o m e g ot a s m ile , s o m e g ot a jo ke o r a lig ht to uch o n th e a rm . T he win e flo w ed . T hey sa t an d ate to geth er. P opovic h m oved aro und th e ro om , co nnectin g w ith e ach p la y er in tu rn . P eo ple la te r s a id h e b eh av ed lik e th e f a th er of a b rid e a t a w ed din g, ta k in g tim e w ith e v ery one, th an kin g th em , a p pre cia tin g th em . T here w ere n o sp eech es, ju st a se rie s o f in tim ate co nvers a tio ns. In a mom en t t h at c o uld h av e b een f ille d w ith f ru str a tio n, r e crim in atio n, a n d a n ger, h e fille d t h eir c u ps. T hey t a lk ed a b out t h e g am e. S om e o f t h em c rie d . T hey b eg an t o co m e o ut o f th eir p riv ate s ile n ces, to g et p ast th e lo ss a n d to c o nnect. T hey e v en la u ghed . “I re m em ber w atc h in g h im d o th at, a n d I c o uld n’t b elie v e it,” R . C . B ufo rd sa y s. “ B y th e e n d o f th e n ig ht, th in gs f e lt a lm ost n orm al. W e w ere a te am a g ain . It’ s t h e s in gle g re ate st t h in g I ’v e e v er s e en i n s p orts , b ar n one.” *3 *1 This i s m ore i m pre ssiv e w hen y ou c o nsid er t h at s e lf is h ness i s i n cen tiv iz ed i n t h e N BA . I n 2 013, re se arc h ers E ric U hlm an n a n d C hris to pher B arn es a n aly zed n in e s e aso ns w orth o f N BA g am es, co m parin g b eh av io r i n t h e r e g ula r s e aso n w ith b eh av io r i n t h e p la y -o ffs . T hey d is c o vere d t h at p la y ers who m ad e a s h ot i n t h e p la y -o ffs r e ceiv ed $ 22,0 44.5 5 a d ditio nal s a la ry p er f ie ld g oal m ad e. P la y ers w ho passe d t h e b all t o a t e am mate w ho m ad e a s h ot l o st $ 6,1 16.6 9. P assin g t h e b all i n ste ad o f s h ootin g i s t h e eq uiv ale n t o f h an din g a t e am mate $ 28,1 61.2 4. *2 Popovic h m ak es t h ese c o nnectio ns i n s p ite o f t h e f a ct t h at— or p erh ap s b ecau se — he i s a s tu dio us av oid er o f t e ch nolo gy. H e d oes n ot u se h is c o m pute r; h is a ssis ta n t p rin ts o ut e m ails . W hile h is s ta ff pers u ad ed h im t o b uy a n i P hone l a st y ear s o t h at h e c o uld r e ceiv e t e x ts , h e h as y et t o s e n d o ne. H e d oes all h is c o m munic atin g i n p ers o n, u p c lo se . *3 The S purs w en t o n t o p la y g am e s e v en w ith c o hesio n a n d e n erg y t h at s u rp asse d t h eir g am e s ix perfo rm an ce, t h ough t h ey e n ded u p f a llin g t o M ia m i. T he S purs k ep t t h e u nopen ed c h am pag ne a n d u se d it t h e f o llo w in g y ear a fte r t h ey d efe ate d t h e H eat i n f iv e g am es t o w in t h eir f if th c h am pio nsh ip . T he A rc h it e ct o f th e G re enhouse T ony H sie h w as no ord in ary ch ild . H e w as brig ht, pla y in g fo ur m usic al i n str u m en ts a n d s c o rin g s tr a ig ht A s w hile b are ly c ra ck in g o pen a b ook. H sie h ( p ro nounced S hay ) w as a ls o s h y, p re fe rrin g to s p en d h is tim e in s o lita ry th ought r a th er th an so cia liz in g. H e lik ed p uzzle s; h e lo ved th e fe elin g o f d is c o verin g c re ativ e s o lu tio ns to d if fic u lt p ro ble m s. H is fa v orite T V s h ow w as MacG yver, w hose hero w as a re so urc efu l se cre t ag en t w ho use d ev ery day m ate ria ls to e sc ap e im possib le d ile m mas a n d b rin g th e b ad g uys to ju stic e. T his id ea— th at t o ugh p ro ble m s c o uld b e e le g an tly h ack ed — held e n orm ous a p peal. A t a n e arly a g e, h e b eg an t o M acG yver h is w ay t h ro ugh t h e w orld . For ex am ple , w hen his pare n ts to ld H sie h to pra ctic e his pia n o, vio lin , t r u m pet, o r F re n ch h orn , h e M acG yvere d a m eth od w here h e w ould re co rd c asse tte ta p es o f h is p ra ctic e s e ssio ns, th en p la y th e r e co rd in gs f ro m b eh in d th e c lo se d d oor o f h is b ed ro om s o h is u nsu sp ectin g p are n ts th ought h e w as d utif u lly a t w ork . I n h ig h s c h ool, h e M acG yvere d th e s c h ool’ s p hone s y ste m in to c allin g d ia l- a -p orn f o r f re e ( b rie fly e le v atin g h is p opula rity a m ong t h e b oys). The p atte rn co ntin ued at H arv ard , w here H sie h M acG yvere d stu dyin g (h e a sse m ble d c la ss n ote s a n d s o ld th em fo r tw en ty d olla rs a p op) a s w ell a s la te – n ig ht sn ack in g (h e b ought p iz za o ven s a n d so ld p iz zas fo r le ss th an th e lo cal o utle t c h arg ed ). A fte r g ra d uatio n, h e c o fo unded a s o ftw are c o m pan y c alle d L in k E xch an ge, w hic h h e a n d h is p artn ers s o ld to M ic ro so ft in 1 998. A t th is p oin t, h e w as t w en ty -fiv e y ears o ld , h e h ad m illio ns o f d olla rs i n h is p ock et, a n d h e w ould n ev er h av e to w ork a n oth er d ay in h is lif e . H e b eg an to lo ok f o r s o m eth in g e ls e to s o lv e. He f o und i t i n a n o nlin e r e ta ile r c alle d S hoeS ite .c o m . O n t h e s u rfa ce, i t d id n ot se em lik e a p artic u la rly s m art in vestm en t— afte r a ll, th ese w ere th e u npro m is in g early d ay s o f e -c o m merc e, th e b ubble -b urs t e ra o f fa ilu re s lik e P ets .c o m . B ut Hsie h s a w th ese f a ilu re s a s a n o pportu nity to r e w ir e a s y ste m . H e th ought a b out atte m ptin g a v en tu re th at w ould re in ven t o nlin e re ta ilin g th ro ugh a s tr o ng a n d dis tin ctiv e co m pan y cu ltu re . H e w an te d to b uild an atm osp here o f “fu n an d weir d ness.” The site w ould deliv er not ju st sh oes but w hat H sie h calle d “p ers o nal em otio nal co nnectio ns,” b oth in sid e th e co m pan y an d o ut. A fe w month s a fte r m ak in g a n in itia l in vestm en t, H sie h b ecam e C EO . H e r e n am ed th e co m pan y Z ap pos. Thin gs d id n ot g o w ell fo r Z ap pos a t fir s t. T he b usin ess h ad tr o uble in th e way s y oung b usin esse s u su ally h av e tr o uble — su pply , lo gis tic s, e x ecu tio n. A t one p oin t s e v era l s ta ffe rs w ere l iv in g i n H sie h ’s S an F ra n cis c o a p artm en t. B ut i n th e e arly 2 000s, t h in gs s ta rte d t o i m pro ve s lo w ly , t h en w ith a sto nis h in g s p eed . I n 2002, re v en ues w ere $ 32 m illio n; in 2 003, $ 70 m illio n; in 2 004, $ 184 m illio n. The c o m pan y r e lo cate d to L as V eg as a n d k ep t g ro w in g, r e ach in g $ 1.1 b illio n in re v en ues in 2 009. Z ap pos, w hic h w as s o ld to A m azo n, n ow h as f if te en h undre d em plo yees an d $2 billio n in re v en ue. It is co nsis te n tly ra n ked am ong th e co untr y ’s t o p e m plo yee-frie n dly c o m pan ie s a n d a ttr a cts h undre d s o f a p plic atio ns fo r e ach a v aila b le o pen in g. It is e asie r to g et in to H arv ard th an to g et a jo b a t Zap pos. In 2 009, H sie h v en tu re d b ey ond c o m merc e to p urc h ase th e tw en ty -e ig ht- a cre blo ck o f d ow nto w n L as V eg as th at su rro unds Z ap pos h ead quarte rs , w ith th e au dacio us id ea o f h elp in g to r e v iv e it. T his w as n ot th e g lo ssy L as V eg as o f th e Str ip ; th is w as a d eso la te ju m ble o f th ir d -c la ss c asin os, e m pty p ark in g lo ts , a n d ru n-d ow n h ote ls th at, a s o ne o bse rv er p ut it, a sp ir e d to th e c ate g ory o f b lig ht. Here h e se t o ut to se e if it w as p ossib le to M acG yver a c ity — th at is , to u se Zap pos p rin cip le s t o r e b uild a b ro ken d ow nto w n. Befo re m eetin g H sie h , I v is it h is a p artm en t, lo cate d o n th e tw en ty -th ir d f lo or of a n earb y b uild in g. I’m n ot a lo ne; I’m a cco m pan ie d b y a d ozen p eo ple a n d a guid e. H sie h , e p ito m iz in g t h e Z ap pos e th os o f r a d ic al o pen ness, a llo w s g ro ups o f vis ito rs t o w alk t h ro ugh h is k itc h en , h is l iv in g r o om , h is l u sh “ ju ngle r o om ” w ith walls an d ceilin gs co vere d in p la n ts , an d th e w ell- s to ck ed b ars , cre atin g th e str a n ge in tim acy o f s e ein g a b illio nair e ’s h alf -e ate n g ra n ola b ar o n th e k itc h en co unte r, h is s o ck s o n t h e f lo or. Then o n h is liv in g ro om w all, w e se e th e p la n : a la rg e sa te llite m ap o f th e Dow nto w n P ro je ct, th e b ord ers m ark ed in b rig ht y ello w , each lo t d esig nate d with w hat l o oked t o b e a n e v er-c h an gin g s e t o f p ossib ilitie s. O n a n a d ja cen t w all flu tte r s e v era l h undre d c o lo rfu l s tic k y n ote s s c ra w le d w ith id eas fo r th ose lo ts : CREA TIV E CO M MONS… EV ER Y TH IN G RU NS ON SO LA R… DOG PA RK … TO W N HALL DIS T IL LER Y … CO M MUNIT Y G ARD EN . Y ou g et th e f e elin g o f a n im possib ly c o m ple x gam e b ein g p la y ed — a S im C ity u nfo ld in g in re al tim e, w ith H sie h as b oth desig ner a n d p la y er. An h our la te r, a t a p la ce c alle d C onta in er P ark , w e m eet. H e is a q uie t m an with a c lo se -s h av ed h ead a n d a s te ad y, a tte n tiv e g aze. H e p ic k s h is w ord s w ith care , an d if th ere ’s a pau se in th e co nvers a tio n, he w ill w ait w ith en dle ss patie n ce fo r y ou to fill it. S ev era l p eo ple c lo se to H sie h d esc rib e h im w ith th e sa m e m eta p hor: H e’s lik e a n a lie n o f s u perio r in te llig en ce w ho c am e to E arth an d f ig ure d o ut w hat m ak es h um an b ein gs t ic k . I a sk h im h ow t h is a ll h ap pen ed . “I tr y to h elp th in gs h ap pen o rg an ic ally ,” h e s a y s. “ If y ou s e t th in gs u p r ig ht, th e co nnectio n hap pen s.” H e sits back an d gestu re s at C onta in er P ark , th e Dow nto w n P ro je ct’ s n ew est c ro w n je w el. A fe w m onth s a g o th e p la ce w as a n em pty lo t. N ow it is a w arm , w elc o m in g gath erin g pla ce built of co lo rfu l sh ip pin g c o nta in ers th at h av e b een c o nverte d in to s h ops a n d b outiq ues. O uts id e sta n ds a g ia n t m eta l sc u lp tu re o f a p ra y in g m an tis th at e m its fir e th ro ugh its an te n nae. A ro und u s s tr o ll h undre d s o f h ap py p eo ple e n jo yin g t h e la te -a fte rn oon su nsh in e. L ate r to nig ht S hery l C ro w w ill p la y a c o ncert in th e p ark . W hile th e Dow nto w n P ro je ct has had its dif fic u ltie s, its early phase s hav e had so m e su ccess: It’ s b ro ught in $ 754 m illio n in p ublic an d p riv ate p ro je cts , assis te d nin ety -tw o b usin esse s, a n d i n fu se d t h e a re a w ith a n ew b uzz. We ta lk a w hile , m e a sk in g q uestio ns, a n d H sie h o ffe rin g r e sp onse s. I t d oesn ’t go p artic u la rly s m ooth ly , in p art b ecau se h e s e em s to re g ard c o nvers a tio n a s a hopele ssly ru dim en ta ry to ol fo r co m munic atio n. A ty pic al ex ch an ge goes so m eth in g l ik e t h is : M E : H ow d id y ou b eg in t h is p ro je ct? H SIE H : I l ik e s y ste m s, I g uess. [ te n -s e co nd p au se ] M E : W hat m odels a n d i d eas i n sp ir e d y ou? H SIE H : A l o t o f d if fe re n t i d eas, f ro m d if fe re n t p la ces. [ tw en ty -s e co nd p au se ] That’ s a r e ally h ard q uestio n t o a n sw er. He w asn ’t t r y in g t o b e d if fic u lt; i t w as s im ply t h at w ord s c o uld n ot d o t h e j o b. Then h e s u ggeste d w e g o fo r a w alk , a n d in a n in sta n t e v ery th in g c h an ged . H e se em ed to c o m e a liv e a s h e m oved a ro und th e s tr e ets , m eetin g p eo ple , ta lk in g to th em , i n tr o ducin g th em to m e a n d to o th ers . H e h ad a c o nnectio n w ith e v ery one, an d m ore im pre ssiv ely , h e so ught to b uild c o nnectio ns b etw een o th ers . In th e sp ace o f f o rty -fiv e m in ute s, I s a w h im c o nnect a m ovie d ir e cto r, a m usic -fe stiv al pro ducer, a n a rtis t, th e o w ner o f a b arb ecu e p la ce, a n d th re e Z ap pos w ork ers with s o m eo ne th ey s h ould ta lk to , a c o m pan y th ey s h ould c h eck o ut, s o m eo ne who s h are d th eir h obby, o r a n e v en t th ey m ig ht b e in te re ste d in . H e w as lik e a hum an v ers io n o f a s o cia l a p p, a n d h e m ad e e ach c o nnectio n w ith t h e s a m e l ig ht, lo w -k ey , p ositiv e v ib e. H e h ad a g if t o f m ak in g th ese c o nvers a tio ns s e em u tte rly norm al a n d, t h ro ugh t h at n orm alc y , s p ecia l. “H e’s v ery s m art, b ut t h e s m arte st t h in g a b out h im i s t h at h e t h in ks s o rt o f l ik e an e ig ht- y ear-o ld ,” sa y s Je an ne M ark el, d ir e cto r o f c u ltu re fo r th e D ow nto w n Pro je ct. “ H e k eep s t h in gs r e ally s im ple a n d p ositiv e w hen i t c o m es t o p eo ple .” “I r e m em ber o ne t im e I w as w ith h im , a n d f o r s o m e r e aso n I g ot i t i n m y h ead th at w e s h ould h av e a Z ap pos b lim p,” s a y s J o e M ah on, m ark etin g m an ag er o f th e D ow nto w n P ro je ct. “N ot so m e little blim p but a huge blim p, lik e th e Goodyear b lim p. I t w as a c o m ple te ly c ra zy id ea, in r e tr o sp ect. B ut T ony d id n’t bat a n e y e. I m ean , h e d id n’t h esita te f o r a s e co nd. H e s a id , ‘ G ood id ea,’ a n d w e ta lk ed a b out i t.” Ben eath H sie h ’s u nco nven tio nal a p pro ach lie s a m ath em atic al s tr u ctu re b ase d on w hat he calls co llis io ns. C ollis io ns— defin ed as se re n dip ito us pers o nal en co unte rs — are , h e b elie v es, t h e l if e b lo od o f a n y o rg an iz atio n, t h e k ey d riv er o f cre ativ ity , c o m munity , a n d c o hesio n. H e h as s e t a g oal o f h av in g o ne th ousa n d “co llis io nab le h ours ” p er y ear f o r h im se lf a n d a h undre d th ousa n d c o llis io nab le hours p er a cre fo r th e D ow nto w n P ro je ct. T his m etr ic is w hy h e c lo se d a s id e en tr a n ce to Z ap pos h ead quarte rs , fu nnelin g p eo ple th ro ugh a sin gle e n tr a n ce. And it’ s w hy, d urin g a r e cen t p arty , h e s ta rte d to g et a n u neasy f e elin g— peo ple were sta n din g aro und in is o la te d clu ste rs , not m ix in g. H e notic ed th at th e fu rn itu re w as b lo ck in g th e f lo w , a n d a f e w s e co nds la te r h e w as h eav in g a la rg e co uch a cro ss t h e f lo or. T hen h e s ta rte d m ovin g l a m ps a n d t a b le s, a n d b efo re l o ng he h ad c o m ple te ly re arra n ged th e ro om . “ It w as th e o nly tim e I’v e e v er s e en a billio nair e m ove f u rn itu re ,” a f rie n d j o kes. “T his p la ce is lik e a g re en house ,” H sie h sa y s. “In so m e g re en house s, th e le ad er p la y s th e r o le o f th e p la n t th at e v ery o th er p la n t a sp ir e s to . B ut th at’ s n ot me. I’m n ot th e p la n t th at e v ery one a sp ir e s to b e. M y jo b is to a rc h ite ct th e gre en house .” My jo b is to a rc h ite ct th e g re en house . T his is a u se fu l in sig ht in to h ow H sie h cre ate s belo ngin g becau se it im plie s a pro cess. “I pro bab ly sa y th e w ord co llis io n a th ousa n d tim es a d ay ,” H sie h s a y s. “ I’m d oin g th is b ecau se th e p oin t is n ’t j u st a b out c o untin g t h em b ut a b out m ak in g a m in dse t s h if t t h at t h ey ’re w hat matte rs . W hen a n i d ea b eco m es p art o f a l a n guag e, i t b eco m es p art o f t h e d efa u lt way o f t h in kin g.” When y ou ta lk to p eo ple in sid e H sie h ’s g re en house , th ey s e em a s if th ey a re under th e in flu en ce o f a p ow erfu l m ag net. “It’ s n ot lo gic al,” sa y s D r. Z ubin Dam an ia , a ra d io lo gis t w ho le ft a te ach in g p ositio n at S ta n fo rd to h ead up Hsie h ’s h ealth c lin ic . “ H e’s lik e M orp heu s in th e Matr ix m ovie , w here h e g iv es you t h e p ill w here y ou r e ally s e e t h e w orld f o r t h e f ir s t t im e.” “It’ s k in d o f im possib le to e x pla in ,” s a y s L is a S hufro , a D ow nto w n P ro je ct sta ffe r. “ Y ou c o nnect w ith a ll th ese p eo ple , a n d y ou d on’t fe el it in y our h ead , you fe el it in your sto m ach . It’ s a fe elin g of possib ility , an d he cre ate s it where v er h e g oes.” “H e k now s h ow p eo ple c o nnect s o w ell th at it’ s u nco nsc io us w ith h im ,” s a y s Mag gie H su , w ho w ork s o n th e D ow nto w n P ro je ct’ s e x ecu tiv e te am . “ A t th is poin t, h e’s b een d oin g it s o m uch th at h e a lm ost c an ’t h elp it. I’v e a sk ed T ony over a n d o ver— why d o p eo ple fo llo w y ou a ro und? W hy d o th ey re sp ond to you? H e s a y s, ‘ I h av e n o i d ea.’   ” Hsu ’s sto ry is ty pic al. A fe w y ears a g o sh e w as a su ccessfu l c o nsu lta n t a t McK in se y w hen sh e h eard a b out th e D ow nto w n P ro je ct. C urio us, sh e se n t a n em ail, a n d H sie h r e sp onded b y in vitin g h er o ut f o r a f e w d ay s. H su s h ow ed u p ex pectin g th e u su al a g en da o f m eetin gs, v is its , a n d o rg an iz ed to urs . W hat s h e got i n ste ad w as a t w o-lin e e m ail f o llo w ed b y a l is t o f e ig ht n am es. Meet th ese p eo ple , H sie h ’s n ote re ad . Then a sk th em w ho e ls e y o u sh ould meet . Hsu w as b uffa lo ed . “ I a sk ed h im , ‘Is th at it? Is th ere a n yth in g e ls e I s h ould do?’ H e s a id , ‘ Y ou’ll f ig ure it o ut.’ A nd h e w as r ig ht— it a ll s o rt o f h ap pen ed . I t was lik e I w as g ettin g th is s ig nal th at g ot s tr o nger w ith e v ery one I ta lk ed to , a n d it w as c ra zy str o ng, a n d I c o uld n’t re sis t. I e n ded u p m ovin g h ere . It w asn ’t lo gic al a t a ll. I t w as l ik e I h ad t o d o i t.” We d on’t n orm ally t h in k a b out b elo ngin g t o b ig g ro ups i n t h is w ay . N orm ally , when we th in k ab out belo ngin g to big gro ups, we th in k ab out gre at co m munic ato rs w ho c re ate a v iv id a n d c o m pellin g v is io n fo r o th ers to fo llo w . But th at is n ot w hat’ s h ap pen in g h ere . I n f a ct, H sie h is a n tic h aris m atic , h e d oes not c o m munic ate p artic u la rly w ell, a n d h is to ols a re g ra d e s c h ool s im ple — Meet peo ple , y o u’ll f ig ure i t o ut. S o w hy d oes i t w ork s o w ell? — Durin g th e C old W ar, th e U nite d S ta te s an d th e S ovie t U nio n co nducte d a decad es-lo ng, an yth in g-g oes ra ce to build ev er-m ore -p ow erfu l w eap ons an d sa te llite s y ste m s. In b oth n atio ns, in sid e h undre d s o f g overn m en ta l a n d p riv ate en te rp ris e pro je cts , te am s of en gin eers sp en t th ousa n ds of hours fe rv en tly work in g on co m plic ate d pro ble m s th at nobody had ev er atte m pte d to so lv e befo re . P artw ay th ro ugh th at r a ce, th e U .S . g overn m en t d ecid ed to lo ok in to th e effic ie n cy o f th is p ro cess. It s o lic ite d re se arc h in to th e q uestio n o f w hy c erta in en gin eerin g p ro je cts w ere s u ccessfu l a n d o th ers w ere n ot. O ne o f t h e f ir s t p eo ple to fo rm ally a tte m pt th at re se arc h w as a y oung M IT p ro fe sso r n am ed T hom as Alle n . Alle n w asn ’t a ty pic al iv ory to w er a cad em ic ; h e w as a m id dle -c la ss k id f ro m New Je rs e y w ho’d g ra d uate d fro m tin y U psa la C olle g e, th en en lis te d in th e Marin es d urin g th e K ore an W ar. W hen h e g ot o ut, h e w ork ed fo r B oein g, th en wen t to M IT fo r d ual g ra d uate d eg re es in c o m pute r s c ie n ce a n d m an ag em en t, whic h le ft him perfe ctly positio ned to purs u e th e govern m en t’ s re q uest fo r re se arc h . (“ I d id n’t e v en k now th ey h ad a m an ag em en t d eg re e w hen I g ot [to MIT ],” h e s a y s. “ I to ok a f e w c la sse s, lik ed it, a n d s o m e p eo ple ta lk ed m e in to gettin g a P hD .” ) A lle n sta rte d h is re se arc h b y lo catin g w hat h e calle d “tw in pro je cts ,” w here tw o or m ore en gin eerin g fir m s ta ck le d th e sa m e co m ple x ch alle n ge, s u ch a s f ig urin g o ut h ow to g uid e a n in te rc o ntin en ta l b allis tic m is sile or c o m munic ate w ith a s a te llite . H e m easu re d th e q uality o f th eir s o lu tio ns, th en atte m pte d t o f in d t h e f a cto rs t h at s u ccessfu l p ro je cts h ad i n c o m mon. One p atte rn w as im med ia te ly ap pare n t: T he m ost su ccessfu l p ro je cts w ere th ose d riv en b y s e ts o f in div id uals w ho fo rm ed w hat A lle n c alle d “ clu ste rs o f hig h co m munic ato rs .” The ch em is tr y an d co hesio n w ith in th ese clu ste rs re se m ble d th at b etw een L arry P ag e a n d J e ff D ean a t G oogle . T hey h ad a k nack fo r n av ig atin g c o m ple x p ro ble m s w ith d azzlin g s p eed . A lle n d ug in to t h e d ata to fin d o ut w here th e p eo ple in th ese c lu ste rs g ot th eir k nack . H ad th ey w ritte n f o r th e s a m e jo urn als ? D id th ey p osse ss th e s a m e le v els o f in te llig en ce? W ere th ey th e s a m e a g e? H ad t h ey a tte n ded t h e s a m e u nderg ra d uate s c h ools o r a ch ie v ed t h e sa m e le v el of deg re es? D id th ey posse ss th e m ost ex perie n ce or th e best le ad ers h ip s k ills ? A ll th ese fa cto rs w ould s e em to m ak e s e n se , b ut A lle n c o uld fin d n one t h at p la y ed a m ean in gfu l r o le i n c o hesio n. E xcep t f o r o ne. The d is ta n ce b etw een t h eir d esk s. At fir s t he did n’t belie v e it. G ro up ch em is tr y is su ch a co m ple x an d myste rio us p ro cess th at h e w an te d th e r e aso n f o r it to b e s im ila rly c o m ple x a n d myste rio us. B ut th e m ore h e e x plo re d th e d ata , th e c le are r th e a n sw er b ecam e. What m atte re d m ost in cre atin g a su ccessfu l te am had le ss to do w ith in te llig en ce a n d e x perie n ce a n d m ore t o d o w ith w here t h e d esk s h ap pen ed t o b e lo cate d . “S om eth in g as sim ple as vis u al co nta ct is very , very im porta n t, m ore im porta n t th an y ou m ig ht th in k,” A lle n s a y s. “ If y ou c an s e e th e o th er p ers o n o r ev en th e are a w here th ey w ork , y ou’re re m in ded o f th em , an d th at b rin gs a whole b unch o f e ffe cts .” Alle n decid ed to dig deep er, m easu rin g fre q uen cy of in te ra ctio ns ag ain st dis ta n ce. “ W e c o uld l o ok a t h ow o fte n p eo ple c o m munic ate d a n d s e e w here t h ey were lo cate d in r e la tio n to e ach o th er,” h e s a y s. “ W e c o uld s e e, ju st th ro ugh th e fre q uen cy , w ith out k now in g w here th ey s a t, w ho w as o n e ach flo or. W e w ere re ally s u rp ris e d a t h ow r a p id ly i t d ecay ed ” w hen t h ey m oved t o a d if fe re n t f lo or. “It tu rn s o ut th at v ertic al se p ara tio n is a v ery se rio us th in g. If y ou’re o n a dif fe re n t f lo or i n s o m e o rg an iz atio ns, y ou m ay a s w ell b e i n a d if fe re n t c o untr y .” When A lle n p lo tte d th e f re q uen cy o f in te ra ctio n a g ain st d is ta n ce, h e e n ded u p with a lin e th at r e se m ble d a s te ep h ill. I t w as n early v ertic al a t th e to p a n d f la t a t th e b otto m . I t b ecam e k now n a s t h e A lle n C urv e. *1 The k ey c h ara cte ris tic o f t h e A lle n C urv e i s t h e s u dden s te ep ness t h at h ap pen s at th e e ig ht- m ete r m ark . A t d is ta n ces o f le ss th an e ig ht m ete rs , c o m munic atio n fre q uen cy r is e s o ff th e c h arts . I f o ur b ra in s o pera te d lo gic ally , w e m ig ht e x pect th e f re q uen cy a n d d is ta n ce t o c h an ge a t a c o nsta n t r a te , p ro ducin g a s tr a ig ht l in e. But as A lle n sh ow s, o ur b ra in s d o n ot o pera te lo gic ally . C erta in p ro xim itie s tr ig ger h uge c h an ges in fre q uen cy o f c o m munic atio n. In cre ase th e d is ta n ce to 50 m ete rs , a n d c o m munic atio n c ease s, a s if a ta p h as b een s h ut o ff. D ecre ase dis ta n ce to 6 m ete rs , a n d c o m munic atio n f re q uen cy s k yro ck ets . I n o th er w ord s, pro xim ity f u nctio ns a s a k in d o f c o nnectiv e d ru g. G et c lo se , a n d o ur te n den cy to co nnect l ig hts u p. As sc ie n tis ts h av e p oin te d o ut, th e A lle n C urv e fo llo w s e v olu tio nary lo gic . For th e vast m ajo rity of hum an his to ry , su sta in ed pro xim ity has been an in dic ato r o f b elo ngin g— afte r a ll, w e d on’t g et c o nsis te n tly c lo se to so m eo ne unle ss i t’ s m utu ally s a fe . S tu die s s h ow t h at d ig ita l c o m munic atio ns a ls o o bey t h e Alle n C urv e; w e’re fa r m ore lik ely to te x t, e m ail, a n d in te ra ct v ir tu ally w ith peo ple w ho a re p hysic ally c lo se . (O ne s tu dy fo und th at w ork ers w ho s h are d a lo catio n e m aile d o ne a n oth er f o ur tim es a s o fte n a s w ork ers w ho d id n ot, a n d a s a r e su lt t h ey c o m ple te d t h eir p ro je cts 3 2 p erc en t f a ste r.) All o f w hic h g iv es u s a le n s to u nders ta n d w hat T ony H sie h is u p to . H e is le v era g in g th e A lle n C urv e. H is p ro je cts te n d to s u cceed f o r th e s a m e r e aso n th e cre ativ e clu ste r pro je cts su cceed ed : C lo se n ess help s cre ate effic ie n cie s of co nnectio n. T he p eo ple i n h is o rb it b eh av e a s i f t h ey w ere u nder t h e i n flu en ce o f so m e k in d o f d ru g b ecau se , i n f a ct, t h ey a re . Durin g o ur co nvers a tio ns, I ask H sie h h ow h e g oes ab out re cru itin g n ew peo ple in to th e D ow nto w n Pro je ct. “If so m eo ne is in te re ste d , an d w e’re in te re ste d in th em , w e in vite th em o ut h ere ,” h e sa y s. “ W e so rt o f d o it in a sn eak y w ay . W e g iv e th em a p la ce to s ta y f o r f re e a n d d on’t te ll th em to o m uch . They g et h ere a n d th ey h an g o ut a n d s e e w hat’ s h ap pen in g, a n d s o m e o f th em decid e t o j o in . T hin gs j u st s o rt o f h ap pen .” What p erc en ta g e e n d u p m ovin g h ere ? He p au se s fo r a lo ng tim e. “P ro bab ly ab out o ne in tw en ty .” A t fir s t, th is num ber d oesn ’t s e em a ll th at im pre ssiv e— only 5 p erc en t. T hen y ou th in k a b out what’ s b en eath th at n um ber. O ne h undre d s tr a n gers w ill v is it H sie h , a n d a fte r a fe w co nvers a tio ns an d a h an dfu l o f in te ra ctio ns, fiv e w ill u pro ot th em se lv es fro m th eir h om e an d jo in th is g ro up th ey h av e ju st m et. H sie h h as b uilt a mach in e t h at t r a n sfo rm s s tr a n gers i n to a t r ib e. “It’ s f u nny h ow i t h ap pen s,” H sie h s a y s. “ I n ev er s a y v ery m uch ; I d on’t m ak e an y b ig p itc h . I j u st l e t t h em e x perie n ce t h is p la ce a n d w ait f o r t h e m om en t t o b e rig ht. T hen I lo ok a t th em a n d a sk , ‘S o w hen a re y ou m ovin g to V eg as? ’   ” H e sm ile s. “ A nd t h en s o m e o f t h em d o.” *2 *1 The A lle n C urv e e ch oes a n oth er f a m ous s o cia l m etr ic , t h e D unbar N um ber, w hic h r e fle cts t h e c o gnitiv e lim it t o t h e n um ber o f p eo ple w ith w hom w e c an h av e a s ta b le s o cia l r e la tio nsh ip ( a ro und 1 50). T hey would s e em t o u nderlin e t h e s a m e t r u th : O ur s o cia l b ra in s a re b uilt t o f o cu s a n d r e sp ond t o a r e la tiv ely sm all n um ber o f p eo ple l o cate d w ith in a f in ite d is ta n ce o f u s. O ne h undre d a n d f if ty f e et a ls o h ap pen s t o be t h e r o ugh d is ta n ce a t w hic h w e c an n o l o nger r e co gniz e a f a ce w ith t h e n ak ed e y e. *2 Shortly a fte r m y r e p ortin g w as c o m ple te d , D ow nto w n P ro je ct l e ad ers e m bark ed o n a c o ntr o vers ia l s e rie s of b elt- tig hte n in g m oves, w hic h r e su lte d i n t h e l a y off o f t h ir ty s ta ffe rs a n d H sie h ’s p ullin g b ack f ro m h is le ad ers h ip r o le . I t r e m ain s t o b e s e en w heth er t h is e x perim en t c an s u cceed i n t h e l o ng r u n. B uild in g sa fe ty is n ’t th e k in d o f sk ill y ou can le arn in a ro botic , p ain t- b y- n um bers s o rt o f w ay . It’ s a flu id , im pro vis a tio nal s k ill— so rt o f lik e le arn in g to p ass a so ccer b all to a te am mate d urin g a g am e. It re q uir e s y ou to re co gniz e p atte rn s, r e act q uic k ly , a n d d eliv er t h e r ig ht s ig nal a t t h e r ig ht t im e. A nd l ik e a n y s k ill, i t c o m es w ith a l e arn in g c u rv e. This le arn in g c u rv e a p plie s e v en to th e sc ie n tis ts w ho stu dy b elo ngin g. F or e x am ple , W ill F elp s, w ho d id t h e b ad a p ple s tu dy ( s e e C hap te r 1 ), d esc rib ed h ow i n sig hts f ro m h is r e se arc h a ffe cte d t h e w ay h e c o m munic ate d i n h is p ers o nal l if e . “ I u se d t o l ik e t o t r y t o m ak e a l o t o f s m all c le v er r e m ark s i n c o nvers a tio n, t r y in g t o b e fu nny, s o m etim es in a c u ttin g w ay ,” h e s a y s. “ N ow I s e e h ow n eg ativ ely t h ose s ig nals c an im pact th e g ro up. S o I tr y to s h ow th at I’m lis te n in g. W hen t h ey ’re t a lk in g, I ’m l o okin g a t t h eir f a ce, n oddin g, s a y in g ‘ W hat d o y ou m ean b y t h at,’ ‘C ould y ou te ll m e m ore a b out th is ,’ o r a sk in g th eir o pin io ns a b out w hat w e s h ould d o, d ra w in g p eo ple o ut.” Am y E dm ondso n ( w hom w e a ls o m et in C hap te r 1 ) h as s tu die d p sy ch olo gic al s a fe ty in a w id e v arie ty o f w ork pla ces. “ I u se d to n ot th in k a b out w heth er I w as m ak in g peo ple sa fe at all,” sh e sa y s. “N ow I th in k ab out it all th e tim e, e sp ecia lly at th e beg in nin g of an y in te ra ctio n, an d th en I co nsta n tly ch eck , e sp ecia lly if th ere ’s a n y c h an ge o r te n sio n. I b en d o ver b ack w ard to m ak e s u re p eo ple a re s a fe .” Felp s a n d E dm ondso n a re s p eak in g to th e s a m e tr u th : C re atin g s a fe ty is a b out d ia lin g in to s m all, s u btle m om en ts a n d d eliv erin g ta rg ete d s ig nals a t k ey p oin ts . T he g oal o f t h is c h ap te r i s t o p ro vid e a f e w t ip s o n d oin g t h at. Ove rc o m munic a te Y our L is te nin g: W hen I v is ite d t h e s u ccessfu l c u ltu re s, I k ep t s e ein g th e sa m e ex pre ssio n o n th e fa ces o f lis te n ers . It lo oked lik e th is : h ead tilte d slig htly fo rw ard , e y es u nblin kin g, a n d e y eb ro w s a rc h ed u p. T heir b odie s w ere still, a n d th ey le an ed to w ard th e s p eak er w ith in te n t. T he o nly s o und th ey m ad e was a s te ad y s tr e am o f a ffir m atio ns— yes, u h-h uh, g otc h a— th at e n co ura g ed th e sp eak er t o k eep g oin g, t o g iv e t h em m ore . “ P ostu re a n d e x pre ssio n a re i n cre d ib ly im porta n t,” sa id B en W ab er, a fo rm er P hD stu den t o f A le x P en tla n d’s w ho fo unded H um an yze, a s o cia l a n aly tic s c o nsu ltin g fir m . “ It’ s th e w ay w e p ro ve th at w e’re i n s y nc w ith s o m eo ne.” Rela te d ly , it’ s im porta n t to av oid in te rru ptio ns. T he sm ooth ness of tu rn ta k in g, a s w e’v e s e en , is a p ow erfu l in dic ato r o f c o hesiv e g ro up p erfo rm an ce. In te rru ptio ns s h atte r th e s m ooth in te ra ctio ns a t th e c o re o f b elo ngin g. T hey a re so d is c o hesiv e, in fa ct, th at W ab er u se s in te rru ptio n m etr ic s a s sa le s tr a in in g to ols . “ W hen y ou c an sh ow so m eo ne n um bers th at th e to p sa le sp eo ple h ard ly ev er in te rru pt peo ple , an d th en ra te th em on th at sc ale , you can deliv er a pow erfu l m essa g e,” he sa y s. O f co urs e , not all in te rru ptio ns are neg ativ e: Cre ativ e s e ssio ns, f o r e x am ple , o fte n c o nta in b urs ts o f in te rru ptio ns. T he k ey is to d ra w a d is tin ctio n b etw een in te rru ptio ns b orn o f m utu al e x cite m en t a n d th ose ro ote d i n l a ck o f a w are n ess a n d c o nnectio n. Spotlig ht Y our F allib ilit y E arly O n— Esp ecia lly If Y ou’r e a L eader: I n a n y i n te ra ctio n, w e h av e a n atu ra l te n den cy to tr y to h id e o ur w eak nesse s a n d a p pear c o m pete n t. If y ou wan t to c re ate s a fe ty , th is is e x actly th e w ro ng m ove. I n ste ad , y ou s h ould o pen up, s h ow y ou m ak e m is ta k es, a n d in vite in put w ith s im ple p hra se s lik e “ T his is ju st m y tw o c en ts .” “ O f c o urs e , I c o uld b e w ro ng h ere .” “ W hat a m I m is sin g?” “W hat d o y ou t h in k?” R. C . B ufo rd , g en era l m an ag er o f th e S an A nto nio S purs , is o ne o f th e m ost su ccessfu l e x ecu tiv es in th e h is to ry o f s p orts . B ut if y ou w atc h h im o pera te , y ou mig ht m is ta k e h im f o r a n a ssis ta n t. H e’s a q uie t, a ffa b le h ound-d og K an sa n w ho ask s q uestio ns, lis te n s k een ly , a n d r a d ia te s h um ility . E arly in o ur c o nvers a tio ns, he b ro ught u p th e lo om in g re tir e m en ts o f se v era l sta r p la y ers a n d sa id , “ I’m ab so lu te ly te rrif ie d o f th e f u tu re .” H e c o uld h av e ta lk ed a b out th e o rg an iz atio n’s vau nte d p la y er s e le ctio n a n d d ev elo pm en t s y ste m s, o r th e p ro gre ss o f th e y oung pla y ers , o r t h e s m art t r a d es t h ey ’d m ad e, o r t h e p ow er o f t h e c u ltu re t h ey ’d b uilt. But h e d id n’t d o th at— he s a id h e w as te rrif ie d . T his k in d o f s ig nal is n ot ju st a n ad m is sio n o f w eak ness; it’ s als o an in vita tio n to cre ate a d eep er co nnectio n, becau se i t s p ark s a r e sp onse i n t h e l is te n er: How c a n I h elp ? “T o cre ate sa fe ty , le ad ers n eed to activ ely in vite in put,” E dm ondso n sa y s. “It’ s re ally hard fo r peo ple to ra is e th eir han d an d sa y , ‘I hav e so m eth in g te n ta tiv e to sa y .’ A nd it’ s eq ually h ard fo r p eo ple n ot to an sw er a g en uin e questio n f ro m a l e ad er w ho a sk s f o r t h eir o pin io n o r t h eir h elp .” Em bra ce th e M esse nger: O ne o f th e m ost v ita l m om en ts f o r c re atin g s a fe ty is w hen a gro up sh are s bad new s or giv es to ugh fe ed back . In th ese m om en ts , it’ s im porta n t n ot s im ply to to le ra te th e d if fic u lt n ew s b ut to e m bra ce it. “ Y ou k now th e p hra se ‘D on’t sh oot th e m esse n ger’? ” E dm ondso n sa y s. “ In fa ct, it’ s n ot en ough to n ot s h oot th em . Y ou h av e to h ug th e m esse n ger a n d le t th em k now how m uch y ou n eed th at f e ed back . T hat w ay y ou c an b e s u re th at th ey f e el s a fe en ough t o t e ll y ou t h e t r u th n ex t t im e.” *1 Pre vie w F utu re C onnectio n: O ne h ab it I s a w in s u ccessfu l g ro ups w as th at o f s n eak – pre v ie w in g fu tu re re la tio nsh ip s, m ak in g sm all b ut te llin g c o nnectio ns b etw een now an d a v is io n o f th e fu tu re . T he S t. L ouis C ard in als b ase b all te am , fo r ex am ple , i s r e n ow ned f o r th eir c u ltu re a n d t h eir a b ility to d ev elo p y oung p la y ers in to b ig -le ag ue ta le n t. T he J o hnso n C ity (T en nesse e) C ard in als a re S t. L ouis ’s lo w est- le v el m in or-le ag ue c lu b. O ne d ay o n a b us b elo ngin g to th e T en nesse e te am , o ne o f th e C ard in als c o ach es, s ittin g in th e f ro nt r o w , g estu re d u p to w ard th e t e le v is io n o n w hic h t h e b ig -le ag ue t e am w as p la y in g. “Y ou k now t h at p itc h er? ” Pla y ers lo oked u p. O n th e s c re en , w earin g a p erfe ct w hite u nif o rm , s to od th e hero ic fig ure o f T re v or R ose n th al, a y oung sta r w ho h ad b eco m e a d om in an t re lie f p itc h er fo r th e C ard in als ; h e h ad p itc h ed in th e p re v io us y ear’s W orld Serie s. “T hre e y ears a g o,” th e c o ach s a id , “ h e w as s ittin g r ig ht in th at s e at w here y ou are .” That’ s a ll h e s a id . I t w asn ’t m uch — it t o ok a b out f iv e s e co nds t o d eliv er. B ut i t was p ow erfu l, b ecau se i t c o nnecte d t h e d ots b etw een w here t h e p la y ers w ere a n d where th ey w ere h ead ed . Thre e y ea rs a go h e w as s ittin g r ig ht in th at s e a t w here yo u a re . Ove rd o T hank-Y ous: W hen y ou en te r h ig hly su ccessfu l cu ltu re s, th e n um ber o f th an k-y ous y ou h ear s e em s s lig htly o ver th e to p. A t th e e n d o f e ach b ask etb all se aso n, f o r e x am ple , S purs c o ach G re g g P opovic h ta k es e ach o f h is s ta r p la y ers asid e an d th an ks th em fo r allo w in g h im to co ach th em . T hose are h is ex act word s: Thank y o u fo r a llo w in g m e to c o ach y o u. I t m ak es little lo gic al s e n se — afte r a ll, b oth P opovic h a n d th e p la y er a re a m ply c o m pen sa te d , a n d it’ s n ot lik e th e p la y er h ad a c h oic e w heth er t o b e c o ach ed . B ut t h is k in d o f m om en t h ap pen s all th e tim e in h ig hly s u ccessfu l g ro ups, b ecau se it h as le ss to d o w ith th an ks th an a ffir m in g t h e r e la tio nsh ip . For e x am ple , w hen I v is ite d K IP P In fin ity , a re m ark ab le c h arte r sc h ool in Harle m , N ew Y ork , I w itn esse d te ach ers th an kin g o ne a n oth er o ver a n d o ver. The m ath te ach ers re ceiv ed T -s h ir ts m ark in g P i D ay a s a s u rp ris e p re se n t fro m th e a d m in is tr a tiv e a ssis ta n t. T hen J e ff L i, w ho te ach es e ig hth -g ra d e m ath , s e n t th e f o llo w in g e m ail t o t h e o th er m ath t e ach ers i n t h e d ep artm en t: Dear m ath t e ach ers I l o ve, On A sse ssm en t # 7, a m id -u nit t e st o n l in ear f u nctio ns ( p art o f t h e fo undatio nal m ajo r w ork o f t h e g ra d e), t h e c la ss o f 2 024 h as outp erfo rm ed t h e p re v io us t w o c la sse s o n e sse n tia lly t h e s a m e t e st. See b elo w f o r t h e d ata . Cla ss o f [ 2 022]: 8 4.5 Cla ss o f 2 023: 8 7.2 Cla ss o f 2 024: 8 8.7 I k now t h is i s a r e su lt o f b ette r t e ach in g a t e v ery g ra d e l e v el f ro m 5th g ra d e o n… so t h an ks f o r b ein g g re at t e ach ers w ho a re p ush in g t o get b ette r e ach y ear. I t’ s w ork in g! —Je ff While a ll th is th an kin g s e em s o ver th e to p, th ere ’s a s tr o ng s c ie n tif ic s u pport th at it ig nite s c o opera tiv e b eh av io r. In a stu dy b y A dam G ra n t a n d F ra n cesc o Gin o, s u bje cts w ere a sk ed t o h elp a f ic titio us s tu den t n am ed “ E ric ” w rite a c o ver le tte r f o r a jo b a p plic atio n. A fte r h elp in g h im , h alf o f th e p artic ip an ts r e ceiv ed a th an kfu l r e sp onse f ro m E ric ; h alf r e ceiv ed a n eu tr a l r e sp onse . T he s u bje cts th en re ceiv ed a re q uest fo r h elp fro m “ S te v e,” a d if fe re n t stu den t. T hose w ho h ad re ceiv ed th an ks f ro m E ric c h ose to h elp S te v e m ore th an tw ic e a s o fte n a s th ose who h ad r e ceiv ed t h e n eu tr a l r e sp onse . I n o th er w ord s, a s m all t h an k-y ou c au se d peo ple to b eh av e fa r m ore g en ero usly to a c o m ple te ly d if fe re n t p ers o n. T his is becau se th an k-y ous are n ’t only ex pre ssio ns of gra titu de; th ey ’re cru cia l belo ngin g cu es th at gen era te a co nta g io us se n se of sa fe ty , co nnectio n, an d motiv atio n. In m y r e se arc h , I s o m etim es s a w t h e m ost p ow erfu l p ers o n i n a g ro up p ublic ly ex pre ss g ra titu de fo r o ne o f th e g ro up’s le ast p ow erfu l m em bers . F or e x am ple , th e c h ef T hom as K elle r, w ho r u ns F re n ch L au ndry , P er S e, a n d o th er w orld -c la ss re sta u ra n ts , h as a h ab it o f th an kin g th e d is h w ash er a t h is re sta u ra n t o pen in gs, hig hlig htin g th e fa ct th at th e perfo rm an ce of th e re sta u ra n t dep en ds on th e pers o n w ho p erfo rm s th e h um ble st ta sk . U rb an M ey er, w ho c o ach ed O hio S ta te fo otb all t o a n atio nal c h am pio nsh ip i n 2 015, u se d t h is s a m e m eth od a t t h e t e am ’s post- title c ele b ra tio n a t O hio S ta d iu m , w hic h w as a tte n ded b y te n s o f th ousa n ds of stu den ts an d fa n s. E very one p re su m ed h e w ould b eg in th e cele b ra tio n b y in tr o ducin g th e sta r p la y ers w ho h ad le d th e te am to su ccess. In ste ad , M ey er in tr o duced an u nhera ld ed p la y er n am ed N ik S ara c, a re se rv e d efe n siv e b ack who, a t th e b eg in nin g o f th e s e aso n, h ad v olu nta rily g iv en u p h is s c h ola rs h ip s o th at M ey er co uld g iv e it to a p la y er w ho co uld h elp th e te am m ore . M ey er sp otlig hte d S ara c f o r th e s a m e r e aso n K elle r s p otlig hte d th e d is h w ash ers — Here is t h e u nhera ld ed p erso n w ho m akes o ur s u ccess p ossib le . Be P ain sta kin g in th e H ir in g P ro ce ss : D ecid in g w ho’s in a n d w ho’s o ut is th e m ost pow erfu l sig nal a n y g ro up se n ds, a n d su ccessfu l g ro ups a p pro ach th eir h ir in g acco rd in gly . M ost h av e b uilt le n gth y, d em an din g p ro cesse s th at s e ek to a sse ss fit, c o ntr ib utio n (th ro ugh d eep b ack gro und re se arc h a n d e x te n siv e in te ra ctio ns with a la rg e n um ber o f p eo ple in th e g ro up), an d p erfo rm an ce (in cre asin gly measu re d b y te sts ). S om e g ro ups, lik e Z ap pos, h av e ad ded an ex tr a la y er o f belo ngin g c u es: a fte r tr a in in g is c o m ple te , th ey o ffe r tr a in ees a $ 2,0 00 b onus if th ey q uit ( a b out 1 0 p erc en t o f t r a in ees a ccep t t h e o ffe r). Elim in ate B ad A pple s: T he g ro ups I stu die d h ad e x tr e m ely lo w to le ra n ce fo r b ad ap ple beh av io r an d, perh ap s m ore im porta n t, w ere sk ille d at nam in g th ose beh av io rs . T he le ad ers o f th e N ew Z eala n d A ll- B la ck s, th e ru gby sq uad th at ra n ks a s o ne o f th e m ost s u ccessfu l te am s o n th e p la n et, a ch ie v e th is th ro ugh a ru le t h at s im ply s ta te s “ N o D ic k head s.” I t’ s s im ple , a n d t h at’ s w hy i t’ s e ffe ctiv e. Cre ate S afe , C ollis io n-R ic h S pace s: T he g ro ups I v is ite d w ere u nif o rm ly o bse sse d w ith desig n a s a le v er fo r c o hesio n a n d in te ra ctio n. I s a w it in P ix ar’s S te v e J o bs– desig ned atr iu m , an d in th e U .S . N av y’s S E A L T eam S ix ’s ex pan siv e te am ro om s, w hic h re se m ble h ote l c o nfe re n ce a re as (a lb eit fille d w ith e x tr e m ely fit men w ith g uns). I a ls o s a w i t i n s m alle r, s im ple r l e v ers l ik e c o ffe e m ach in es. A fe w y ears b ack , B an k o f A m eric a w as s tr u gglin g w ith b urn out in its c all cen te r te am s. T hey b ro ught in B en W ab er to d o a s o cio m etr ic a n aly sis , w hic h fo und th at w ork ers w ere h ig hly s tr e sse d a n d th at th e b est re lie v er o f th at s tr e ss was tim e s p en t to geth er a w ay fro m th eir d esk s. W ab er re co m men ded a lig nin g te am m em bers ’ s c h ed ule s s o th ey s h are d th e s a m e fif te en -m in ute c o ffe e b re ak ev ery d ay . H e a ls o h ad th e c o m pan y b uy n ic er c o ffe e m ach in es a n d in sta ll th em in m ore c o nven ie n t g ath erin g p la ces. T he e ffe ct w as im med ia te : a 2 0 p erc en t in cre ase in p ro ductiv ity , an d a re d uctio n in tu rn over fro m 4 0 p erc en t to 1 2 perc en t. W ab er h as a ls o o vers e en in te rv en tio ns in c o m pan y c afe te ria s: M ere ly re p la cin g fo ur-p ers o n ta b le s w ith te n -p ers o n ta b le s h as b ooste d p ro ductiv ity b y 10 perc en t. T he le sso n of all th ese stu die s is th e sa m e: C re ate sp aces th at max im iz e c o llis io ns. “W e u se d to h ir e o ut o ur fo od se rv ic e to a co ntr a cto r,” sa id E d C atm ull, pre sid en t a n d c o fo under o f P ix ar ( o f w hom w e’ll h ear m ore i n C hap te r 1 6). “ W e did n’t c o nsid er m ak in g fo od to b e o ur c o re b usin ess. B ut w hen y ou h ir e it o ut, th at fo od se rv ic e c o m pan y w an ts to m ak e m oney , a n d th e o nly w ay th ey c an mak e m oney i s t o d ecre ase t h e q uality o f t h e f o od o r t h e s e rv ic e. T hey ’re n ot b ad or g re ed y p eo ple ; i t’ s a s tr u ctu ra l p ro ble m . T hat’ s w hy w e d ecid ed t o t a k e i t o ver ours e lv es a n d g iv e o ur p eo ple h ig h-q uality fo od a t a re aso nab le p ric e. N ow w e hav e r e ally g ood f o od a n d p eo ple s ta y h ere in ste ad o f le av in g, a n d th ey h av e th e kin d o f c o nvers a tio ns a n d e n co unte rs th at h elp o ur b usin ess. It’ s p re tty s im ple . We r e aliz ed t h at f o od r e ally i s p art o f o ur c o re b usin ess.” Make S ure E ve ry o ne H as a V oic e : E nsu rin g th at e v ery one h as a v oic e is e asy to ta lk ab out b ut h ard to a cco m plis h . T his is w hy m an y s u ccessfu l g ro ups u se s im ple mech an is m s th at en co ura g e, sp otlig ht, an d v alu e fu ll- g ro up co ntr ib utio n. F or ex am ple , m an y g ro ups f o llo w t h e r u le t h at n o m eetin g c an e n d w ith out e v ery one sh arin g so m eth in g. *2 O th ers hold re g ula r re v ie w s of re cen t w ork in w hic h an ybody can offe r th eir tw o cen ts . (P ix ar calls th em D ailie s, all- in clu siv e morn in g m eetin gs w here e v ery body g ets th e c h an ce to o ffe r in put a n d f e ed back on r e cen tly c re ate d f o ota g e.) O th ers e sta b lis h r e g ula r f o ru m s w here a n yone c an brin g an is su e or questio n befo re th e gro up’s le ad ers , no m atte r how co ntr o vers ia l it m ig ht b e. B ut n o m atte r h ow s tr o ng th e r u le , th e u nderly in g k ey is t o h av e l e ad ers w ho s e ek o ut c o nnectio n a n d m ak e s u re v oic es a re h eard . A g ood e x am ple i s t h e m eth od o f M ic h ael A bra sh off, a n av y c ap ta in w ho t o ok co m man d o f th e d estr o yer USS B en fo ld in 1 997. A t th e tim e, th e Ben fo ld r a n ked at th e b otto m o f th e n av y’s p erf o rm an ce s c o re s. O ne o f h is f ir s t a cts w as to h old one-o n-o nes w ith e ach o f th e s h ip ’s 3 10 s a ilo rs f o r th ir ty m in ute s. ( C om ple tin g all th e m eetin gs to ok ab out six w eek s.) A bra sh off ask ed each sa ilo r th re e questio ns: 1. What d o y ou l ik e m ost a b out t h e Ben fo ld ? 2. What d o y ou l ik e l e ast? 3. What w ould y ou c h an ge i f y ou w ere c ap ta in ? When ev er Abra sh off re ceiv ed a su ggestio n he fe lt was im med ia te ly im ple m en ta b le , h e a n nounced th e c h an ge o ver th e s h ip ’s in te rc o m , g iv in g c re d it to th e id ea’s o rig in ato r. O ver th e n ex t th re e y ears , o n th e str e n gth o f th is a n d oth er m easu re s (w hic h are d eta ile d in A bra sh off’s b ook It’ s Y our S hip ), th e Ben fo ld r o se t o b eco m e o ne o f t h e n av y’s h ig hest- ra n ked s h ip s. Pic k U p T ra sh : B ack in th e m id -1 960s, U CLA ’s m en ’s b ask etb all te am w as in th e mid st o f o ne o f th e m ost s u ccessfu l e ra s in s p orts h is to ry , w in nin g te n title s in tw elv e y ears . F ra n klin A dle r, th e te am ’s s tu den t m an ag er, s a w s o m eth in g o dd: Jo hn W ooden , th e te am ’s le g en dary h ead c o ach , w as p ic k in g u p tr a sh in th e lo ck er ro om . “H ere was a m an who had alr e ad y won th re e natio nal ch am pio nsh ip s,” A dle r s a id , “ a m an w ho w as a lr e ad y e n sh rin ed in th e H all o f Fam e a s a p la y er, a m an w ho h ad c re ate d a n d w as in th e m id dle o f a d ynasty — ben din g d ow n a n d p ic k in g u p s c ra p s f ro m t h e l o ck er r o om f lo or.” Wooden w as n ot a lo ne. R ay K ro c, th e fo under o f M cD onald ’s , w as fa m ous fo r pic k in g up tr a sh . “E very nig ht you’d se e him co m in g dow n th e str e et, walk in g c lo se t o t h e g utte r, p ic k in g u p e v ery M cD onald ’s w ra p per a n d c u p a lo ng th e w ay ,” fo rm er M cD onald ’s C EO F re d T urn er to ld a u th or A la n D eu ts c h m an . “H e’d c o m e in to th e s to re w ith b oth h an ds f u ll o f c u ps a n d w ra p pers . I s a w R ay sp en d o ne S atu rd ay m orn in g w ith a to oth bru sh c le an in g o ut h ole s in th e m op wrin ger. N o o ne e ls e r e ally p aid a tte n tio n to th e d am ned m op w rin ger, b ecau se ev ery one k new it w as ju st a m op b uck et. B ut K ro c s a w a ll th e c ru d b uild in g u p in t h e h ole s, a n d h e w an te d t o c le an t h em s o t h e w rin ger w ould w ork b ette r.” I k ep t s e ein g th at p atte rn . C oach B illy D onovan o f th e U niv ers ity o f F lo rid a (n ow w ith th e O kla h om a C ity T hunder) c le an ed u p G ato ra d e th at h ad s p ille d o n th e f lo or. M ik e K rz y zew sk i o f D uke a n d T om C oughlin o f t h e N ew Y ork G ia n ts did th e sa m e. T he le ad ers o f th e A ll- B la ck s ru gby te am h av e fo rm aliz ed th is hab it in to a te am v alu e c alle d “ sw eep in g th e s h ed s.” T heir le ad ers d o th e m en ia l work , c le an in g a n d tid yin g th e lo ck er r o om s— an d a lo ng th e w ay v iv id ly m odel th e t e am ’s e th ic o f t o geth ern ess a n d t e am work . This is w hat I w ould c all a m usc u la r h um ility — a m in dse t o f s e ek in g s im ple way s to s e rv e th e g ro up. P ic k in g u p tr a sh is o ne e x am ple , b ut th e s a m e k in ds o f beh av io rs ex is t aro und allo catin g p ark in g p la ces (e g alita ria n , w ith n o sp ecia l sp ots re se rv ed fo r le ad ers ), p ic k in g u p c h eck s a t m eals (th e le ad ers d o it e v ery tim e), an d pro vid in g fo r eq uity in sa la rie s, partic u la rly fo r sta rt- u ps. T hese actio ns are pow erfu l not ju st becau se th ey are m ora l or gen ero us but als o becau se t h ey s e n d a l a rg er s ig nal: We a re a ll i n t h is t o geth er. Capit a liz e o n T hre sh old M om ents : W hen w e e n te r a n ew g ro up, o ur b ra in s d ecid e quic k ly w heth er t o c o nnect. S o s u ccessfu l c u ltu re s t r e at t h ese t h re sh old m om en ts as m ore im porta n t th an a n y o th er. F or e x am ple , s u ppose y ou a re h ir e d a t P ix ar, wheth er it’ s a s a d ir e cto r o r a s a b aris ta in th e c o m pan y c afé . O n y our f ir s t d ay , you a n d a sm all g ro up o f fe llo w n ew bie s a re u sh ere d in to th e th eate r w here sc re en in gs a re h eld . Y ou a re a sk ed to s it in th e f if th r o w — becau se th at’ s w here th e d ir e cto rs s it. T hen y ou h ear th e f o llo w in g w ord s: Whate ver y o u w ere b efo re , yo u a re a film maker n ow . W e n eed y o u to h elp u s m ake o ur film s b ette r. *3 “ It’ s in cre d ib ly p ow erfu l,” s a id M ik e S undy, w ho w ork s in d ata m an ag em en t. “ Y ou fe el c h an ged .” The O kla h om a C ity T hunder, a s u ccessfu l N BA te am , m ak es s im ila r u se o f th eir fir s t d ay . O kla h om a C ity is an u nlik ely p la ce fo r a p ro fe ssio nal sp orts fra n ch is e : I t is r e la tiv ely s m all a n d is o la te d , k now n m ore f o r to rn ad oes th an f o r nig htlif e . W hen you are hir e d by th e T hunder, eith er as a pla y er or as an em plo yee, t h e f ir s t t h in g t h at h ap pen s i s t h at y ou a re t a k en t o t h e O kla h om a C ity Natio nal M em oria l, w hic h honors th e vic tim s of th e 1995 O kla h om a C ity bom bin g. Y ou w alk a ro und th e re fle ctin g p ool. Y ou se e th e sc u lp tu re o f 1 68 ch air s , o ne f o r e ach v ic tim . The g en era l m an ag er, S am P re sti, o fte n le ad s th e to ur. H e d oesn ’t s a y m uch ; he s im ply l e ts y ou w alk a ro und a n d f e el t h e s o le m nity o f t h e p la ce. T hen , t o w ard th e en d, he re m in ds pla y ers to lo ok in to th e sta n ds durin g gam es an d to re m em ber th at m an y o f th ose p eo ple w ere p ers o nally a ffe cte d b y th is tr a g ed y. It’ s a sm all m om en t. B ut it m ak es a b ig d if fe re n ce fo r th e sa m e re aso n th e WIP R O e x perim en t m ad e a d if fe re n ce. I t s e n ds a p ow erfu l b elo ngin g c u e a t th e pre cis e m om en t w hen p eo ple a re r ip est t o r e ceiv e i t. Of c o urs e , th re sh old m om en ts d on’t o nly h ap pen o n d ay o ne; th ey h ap pen ev ery d ay . B ut th e su ccessfu l g ro ups I v is ite d p aid atte n tio n to m om en ts o f arriv al. T hey w ould p au se , ta k e tim e, a n d a ck now le d ge th e p re se n ce o f th e n ew pers o n, m ark in g t h e m om en t a s s p ecia l: We a re t o geth er n ow . Avo id G iv in g S andw ic h Feedback: In m an y org an iz atio ns, le ad ers te n d to deliv er fe ed back u sin g th e tr a d itio nal s a n dw ic h m eth od: Y ou ta lk a b out a p ositiv e, th en ad dre ss a n a re a th at n eed s im pro vem en t, th en f in is h w ith a p ositiv e. T his m ak es se n se in th eo ry , b ut in p ra ctic e it o fte n le ad s to c o nfu sio n, a s p eo ple te n d to fo cu s e ith er e n tir e ly o n t h e p ositiv e o r e n tir e ly o n t h e n eg ativ e. In t h e c u ltu re s I v is ite d , I d id n’t s e e m an y f e ed back s a n dw ic h es. I n ste ad , I s a w th em s e p ara te th e tw o in to d if fe re n t p ro cesse s. T hey h an dle d n eg ativ es th ro ugh dia lo gue, fir s t b y a sk in g if a p ers o n w an ts fe ed back , th en h av in g a le arn in g- fo cu se d tw o-w ay c o nvers a tio n a b out th e n eed ed g ro w th . T hey h an dle d p ositiv es th ro ugh u ltr a cle ar b urs ts o f r e co gnitio n a n d p ra is e . T he le ad ers I s p en t tim e w ith sh are d a cap acity fo r ra d ia tin g delig ht w hen th ey sp otte d beh av io r w orth pra is in g. T hese m om en ts o f w arm , a u th en tic h ap pin ess fu nctio ned a s m ag netic north , c re atin g c la rity , b oostin g b elo ngin g, a n d o rie n tin g f u tu re a ctio n. Em bra ce F un: T his o bvio us o ne is s till w orth m en tio nin g, b ecau se la u ghte r is n ot ju st l a u ghte r; i t’ s t h e m ost f u ndam en ta l s ig n o f s a fe ty a n d c o nnectio n. *1 One w ay t o d ete ct b elo ngin g l e v els i s b y e x am in in g t h e k in ds o f p ers o nal l a n guag e u se d i n e m ails . A stu dy b y L ynn W u o f W harto n l o oked a t t w o y ears o f c o m munic atio n b y e ig ht t h ousa n d w ork ers a n d sh ow ed t h at t a lk in g a b out s p orts , l u nch , a n d c o ffe e p re d ic te d w heth er a n e m plo yee w ould b e r e ta in ed bette r t h an t h e r e v en ue t h ey b ro ught i n . A s tu dy b y A m ir G old berg a t S ta n fo rd s h ow ed t h at i t w as possib le t o p re d ic t h ow l o ng e m plo yees s ta y ed b y h ow f re q uen tly t h eir e m ails c o nta in ed f a m ily re fe re n ces a n d s w ear w ord s. *2 My f a v orite m eth od i s T oyota ’s u se o f t h e andon, a c o rd t h at a n y e m plo yee c an u se t o s to p t h e a sse m bly lin e w hen t h ey s p ot a p ro ble m . L ik e m an y o rg an iz atio nal h ab its t h at e n su re v oic e, t h is o ne s e em s in effic ie n t a t f ir s t, o vertu rn in g t h e h ie ra rc h y b y a llo w in g a l o w ly a sse m bly -lin e w ork er t o s to p t h e e n tir e co m pan y. B ut a c lo se r l o ok s h ow s t h at i t c re ate s b elo ngin g b y p la cin g p ow er a n d t r u st i n t h e h an ds o f t h e peo ple d oin g t h e w ork . *3 Sam an th a W ils o n, w ho w as o rig in ally h ir e d b y P ix ar a s a b aris ta f o r t h e c o m pan y c afé , i s n ow a s to ry man ag er f o r t h e s tu dio , h av in g w ork ed o n In sid e O ut, U p, a n d Cars 2 . O n J u ly 1 0, 1 989, U nite d A ir lin es f lig ht 2 32 l e ft D en ver a n d h ead ed f o r C hic ag o w ith 2 85 p asse n gers o n b oard . T he w eath er w as su nny an d m ild , w ith lig ht w in ds o ut o f th e w est at th ir te en m ile s p er h our. F or th e fir s t h our an d te n m in ute s o f t h e t r ip , e v ery th in g w en t p erfe ctly . O ver I o w a, t h e c re w , c o nsis tin g o f C ap ta in A l H ay nes, fir s t offic er B ill R eco rd s, an d flig ht en gin eer D udle y D vora k , p ut th e p la n e o n a u to pilo t, a te lu nch , a n d s h ot th e b re eze. H ay nes, f if ty – s e v en , w as g ood a t s h ootin g th e b re eze. A lo w -k ey T ex an a n d a f o rm er M arin e, h e h ad a n a m ia b le m an ner a p pre cia te d b y h is c re w s. T w o y ears f ro m r e tir e m en t, h e w as p la n nin g f o r t h e n ex t s ta g e o f l if e , w hen h e w ould p ilo t a n R V a ro und t h e c o untr y w ith h is w if e , D arle n e. Then , a t 3 :1 6, c am e a lo ud e x plo sio n f ro m th e ta il. T he p la n e s h ook f ie rc ely , t h en s ta rte d c lim bin g a n d tiltin g h ard to th e rig ht. R eco rd s g ra b bed o ne o f th e t w o c o ntr o l w heels , k now n a s y okes, a n d s a id , “ I h av e th e a ir p la n e.” C heck in g t h e g au ges, th e c re w r e aliz ed th e p la n e’s ta il e n gin e— one o f th e D C-1 0’s th re e e n gin es— was g one. M ean w hile th e p la n e k ep t tiltin g f a rth er to th e r ig ht d esp ite R eco rd s’s e ffo rts t o c o rre ct i t. “A l,” R eco rd s sa id , tr y in g to keep his voic e calm , “I can ’t co ntr o l th e a ir p la n e.” Hay nes s e iz ed h is y oke. “ I g ot it,” h e s a id , b ut h e d id n’t h av e it. H e p ulle d w ith a ll h is s tr e n gth , b ut t h e c o ntr o ls b are ly b udged . T he p la n e k ep t t iltin g t o t h e r ig ht, u ntil i t f e lt l ik e i t w as n early s ta n din g o n t h e w in g. Late r in vestig ato rs w ould tr a ce th e e x plo sio n to a m ic ro sc o pic c ra ck in a s ix – f o ot- d ia m ete r fa n in sid e th e ta il en gin e. T he co nse q uen ces o f th e ex plo sio n, h ow ev er, w en t bey ond th e lo ss of th e en gin e, w hic h co uld norm ally be overc o m e. S hra p nel h ad slic ed th e m ain an d b ack up h ydra u lic co ntr o l lin es th ro ugh w hic h th e p ilo ts o pera te d th e r u dder, a ile ro ns, a n d w in g f la p s— in s h ort, th e e x plo sio n r e m oved t h e p ilo ts ’ a b ility t o c o ntr o l t h e p la n e. The te rm th e N atio nal T ra n sp orta tio n S afe ty B oard u se s f o r th is ty pe o f e v en t is ca ta str o phic fa ilu re . A ir lin es d id n’t b oth er tr a in in g p ilo ts fo r cata str o phic fa ilu re fo r tw o re aso ns. F ir s t, su ch fa ilu re s are ex tr e m ely ra re — th e o dds o f lo sin g h ydra u lic s and b ack ups h ad b een c alc u la te d a t o ne in a b illio n. S eco nd, th ey a re i n varia b ly f a ta l. Hay nes m an ag ed t o s to p t h e r o ll b y u sin g t h e t h ro ttle s t o i n cre ase p ow er t o t h e rig ht- w in g e n gin e a n d d ecre ase p ow er to th e le ft- w in g e n gin e. T he a sy m metr ic th ru st h elp ed th e p la n e to s lo w ly tilt b ack to a ro ugh s e m bla n ce o f le v el flig ht. But it d id n oth in g to f ix th e b ig ger p ro ble m : T he c o ntr o ls w ould n’t b udge. T he pla n e w as now w obblin g th ro ugh th e Io w a sk y lik e a poorly m ad e pap er air p la n e, p orp ois in g u p a n d d ow n th ousa n ds o f fe et e ach m in ute . H ay nes a n d Reco rd s c o ntin ued t o w re stle w ith t h e y okes. T he f lig ht s te w ard s m oved t h ro ugh th e c ab in , t r y in g t o r e sto re c alm . O ne f a m ily t o ok o ut a B ib le a n d b eg an t o p ra y . In a n a is le s e at o f f ir s t c la ss, a f o rty -s ix -y ear-o ld m an n am ed D en ny F itc h w as cle an in g u p th e c o ffe e th at h ad s p ille d o n h is la p w hen th e e x plo sio n h ap pen ed . Fitc h w ork ed f o r U nite d a s a p ilo t t r a in er. H e s p en t h is d ay s i n a f lig ht s im ula to r, te ach in g p ilo ts h ow t o h an dle e m erg en cie s. N ow h e s p oke w ith a f lig ht a tte n dan t an d a sk ed h er to in fo rm th e c ap ta in o f h is w illin gness to h elp . T he w ord c am e back : Sen d h im u p . F itc h w alk ed u p th e a is le , o pen ed th e c o ck pit d oor, a n d h is heart d ro pped . “T he sc en e to m e a s a p ilo t w as u nbelie v ab le ,” F itc h la te r to ld a re p orte r. “B oth th e p ilo ts w ere in s h ort- s le ev ed s h ir ts , th e te n dons b ein g ra is e d o n th eir fo re arm s, th eir k nuck le s w ere w hite … .T he fir s t th in g th at s tr ik es y our m in d is , ‘D ear G od, I’m g oin g to d ie th is a fte rn oon.’ T he o nly q uestio n th at re m ain s is , ‘H ow l o ng i s i t g oin g t o t a k e I o w a t o h it m e?’   ” Fitc h s c an ned th e g au ges, tr y in g to m ak e s e n se o f th em . H e h ad n ev er s e en a co m ple te h ydra u lic fa ilu re b efo re , an d lik e th e p ilo ts , h e w as h av in g tr o uble co m pre h en din g w hat w as g oin g o n. F lig ht e n gin eer D vora k w as o n th e r a d io to Unite d ’s m ain te n an ce s e ek in g a d vic e. I t w as a m om en t o f p eak c o nfu sio n. “T ell m e,” F itc h s a id t o H ay nes. “ T ell m e w hat y ou w an t, a n d I ’ll h elp y ou.” Hay nes gestu re d to th e en gin e th ro ttle s th at w ere lo cate d on th e co nso le betw een th e tw o p ilo ts . A s H ay nes a n d R eco rd s h ad th eir h an ds fu ll w re stlin g with th e y okes, so m eo ne n eed ed to ru n th e th ro ttle s to tr y to m ain ta in le v el flig ht. F itc h m oved fo rw ard , k nelt b etw een th e s e ats , a n d g ra sp ed th e th ro ttle s with b oth h an ds. Should er to s h ould er, th e th re e m en b eg an to d o s o m eth in g th at n o p ilo ts h ad ev er d one: fly a D C-1 0 w ith out a n y c o ntr o ls . T hey b eg an to c o m munic ate in a partic u la r w ay , t h ro ugh s h ort, u rg en t b urs ts . H AYNES : O kay , l e t’ s s ta rt t h is s u ck er d ow n a l ittle m ore . F IT C H : O kay , s e t y our p ow er a l ittle b it. H AYNES : A nybody h av e a n y i d eas a b out [ w hat t o d o a b out t h e l a n din g g ear]? He [ D vora k ] i s t a lk in g t o [ m ain te n an ce]. F IT C H : [ D vora k ] i s t a lk in g t o [ m ain te n an ce]. I ’m g onna a lte rn ate -g ear y ou. May be t h at w ill e v en h elp y ou. I f t h ere i s n o f lu id , I d on’t k now h ow o utb oard aile ro ns a re g oin g t o h elp y ou. H AYNES : H ow d o y ou, w e g et g ear d ow n? F IT C H : W ell, t h ey c an f re e-fa ll. T he o nly t h in g i s , w e a lte rn ate t h e g ear. W e got t h e [ la n din g g ear] d oors d ow n? H AYNES : Y ep . R EC O RD S : W e’re g onna h av e t r o uble s to ppin g t o o. H AYNES : O h y eah . W e d on’t h av e a n y b ra k es. R EC O RD S : N o b ra k es? H AYNES : W ell, w e h av e s o m e b ra k es [ b ut n ot m uch ]. F IT C H : [ B ra k in g w ill b e a ] o ne-s h ot d eal. J u st m ash i t, m ash i t o nce. T hat’ s a ll you g et. I ’m g onna t u rn y ou. [ I’m g onna] g iv e y ou a l e ft t u rn b ack t o t h e air p ort. I s t h at o kay ? H AYNES : I g ot i t. [A f e w m in ute s l a te r.] H AYNES : A l ittle l e ft b an k. B ack , b ack . F IT C H : H old t h is t h in g l e v el i f y ou c an . H AYNES : L ev el, b ab y, l e v el, l e v el… D VORA K : W e’re t u rn in g n ow . F IT C H : M ore p ow er, m ore p ow er, g iv e ’ e m m ore p ow er. R EC O RD S : M ore p ow er, f u ll p ow er. F IT C H : P ow er p ic k s ’ e m u p. U NKNOW N V OIC E : R ig ht t u rn , t h ro ttle b ack . H AYNES : C an w e t u rn l e ft? D VORA K ( s p eak in g t o F itc h ): D o y ou w an t t h is s e at? F IT C H : Y es, d o y ou m in d? D VORA K : I d on’t m in d. I t h in k t h at y ou k now w hat y ou’re d oin g t h ere … . The te rm p ilo ts u se to d esc rib e th is ty pe o f sh ort- b urs t co m munic atio n is notific a tio ns . A n otif ic atio n is n ot a n o rd er o r a c o m man d. It p ro vid es c o n te x t, te llin g o f s o m eth in g n otic ed , p la cin g a s p otlig ht o n o ne d is c re te e le m en t o f th e world . Notif ic atio ns are th e hum ble st an d most prim itiv e fo rm of co m munic atio n, th e eq uiv ale n t of a ch ild ’s fin ger-p oin t: I se e th is . U nlik e co m man ds, th ey c arry u nsp oken q uestio ns: Do y o u a gre e? W hat e ls e d o y o u se e? In a ty pic al la n din g or ta k eo ff, a pro fic ie n t cre w av era g es tw en ty notif ic atio ns p er m in ute . Durin g th eir in te ra ctio ns a fte r th e e x plo sio n, th e m ak esh if t c re w o f F lig ht 2 32 co m munic ate d a t a r a te o f m ore th an s ix ty n otif ic atio ns p er m in ute . S om e o f th e in te ra ctio ns c o nsis te d o f b ig , o pen -e n ded q uestio ns, m ostly a sk ed b y H ay nes. How d o w e g et th e [ la ndin g] g ea r d ow n? … Anyb ody h ave a ny id ea s? T hese a re not th e k in ds o f q uestio ns o ne w ould n orm ally e x pect a c ap ta in to a sk . In fa ct, th ey ’re th e o pposite . N orm ally , a cap ta in ’s jo b in an em erg en cy is to b e in co m man d an d to p ro je ct cap ab ility an d co oln ess. Y et o ver an d o ver H ay nes notif ie d h is c re w o f a v ery d if fe re n t tr u th : Your c a pta in h as n o id ea w hat is goin g o n o r h ow t o f ix i t . Can y o u h elp ? This c o m bin atio n o f n otif ic atio ns a n d o pen -e n ded q uestio ns a d ded u p to a patte rn of in te ra ctio n th at w as neith er sm ooth nor gra cefu l. It w as clu nky, unco nfid en t, a n d f u ll o f r e p etitio ns. C oncep tu ally , it r e se m ble d a p ers o n f e elin g his w ay th ro ugh a d ark ro om , s e n sin g o bsta cle s a n d n av ig atin g fitf u lly a ro und th em . We’r e g onna h ave tr o uble sto ppin g to o… .O h y ea h. W e d on’t h ave a ny bra kes… .N o b ra kes? … Well, w e h ave s o m e b ra kes… .J u st m ash i t, m ash i t o nce. In te ra ctin g in th is s tilte d , u nco nfid en t f a sh io n, th e c re w o f F lig ht 2 32 s o lv ed a co m ple x s e rie s o f p ro ble m s w hile fly in g a t fo ur h undre d m ile s p er h our. T hey fig ure d o ut h ow to o ptim ally d is tr ib ute p ow er b etw een th e tw o e n gin es a n d h ow to tr y to an tic ip ate th e porp ois in g m ovem en ts th e pla n e w as m ak in g. T hey co m munic ate d with th e cab in , atte n dan ts , passe n gers , flig ht co ntr o l, main te n an ce, a n d e m erg en cy c re w s o n t h e g ro und. T hey c h ose r o ute s, c alc u la te d desc en t ra te s, p re p are d fo r ev acu atio n, an d ev en cra ck ed jo kes. A s th ey g ot clo se r to S io ux C ity , th e a ir tr a ffic c o ntr o lle r c le are d th em to la n d o n a n y o f th e air p ort’ s ru nw ay s. H ay nes c h uck le d a n d a sk ed , “ Y ou w an t to b e p artic u la r a n d mak e i t a r u nw ay , h uh?” E very one l a u ghed . A f e w m in ute s la te r, f ly in g a t tw ic e th e n orm al la n din g s p eed a n d d esc en din g at s ix tim es th e n orm al r a te , F lig ht 2 32 a tte m pte d to la n d. A w in gtip d ip ped a n d dug in to th e ru nw ay , se n din g th e p la n e in to a fie ry c artw heel. T he c ra sh w as te rrib le , b ut 1 85 p eo ple s u rv iv ed , in clu din g th e e n tir e c re w . S om e w alk ed o ut o f th e w re ck ag e in to a c o rn fie ld . T he s u rv iv al o f s o m an y p asse n gers w as te rm ed a mir a cle . In th e week s afte rw ard , as part of its in vestig atio n, th e Natio nal Tra n sp orta tio n S afe ty B oard p la ced ex perie n ced cre w s in sim ula to rs an d re – cre ate d th e c o nditio ns fa ced b y F lig ht 2 32 a t th e m om en t it lo st a ll h ydra u lic s. The s im ula tio n w as ru n tw en ty -e ig ht tim es. A ll tw en ty -e ig ht tim es, th e p la n es cra sh ed , s p ir a lin g t o t h e g ro und w ith out g ettin g c lo se t o S io ux C ity . All o f w hic h u nderlin es a s tr a n ge tr u th . T he c re w o f F lig ht 2 32 s u cceed ed n ot becau se o f th eir in div id ual s k ills b ut b ecau se th ey w ere a b le to c o m bin e th ose sk ills in to a gre ate r in te llig en ce. T hey dem onstr a te d th at a se rie s of sm all, hum ble e x ch an ges— Anyb ody h ave a ny id ea s? T ell m e w hat y o u w ant, a nd I’ll help y o u —can u nlo ck a g ro up’s a b ility to p erfo rm . T he k ey , a s w e’re a b out to le arn , in volv es th e w illin gness to p erfo rm a c erta in b eh av io r th at g oes a g ain st our e v ery i n stin ct: s h arin g v uln era b ility . — So fa r w e’v e sp en t th is book in w hat you m ig ht call th e glu e dep artm en t, ex plo rin g h ow s u ccessfu l g ro ups c re ate b elo ngin g. N ow w e’ll tu rn o ur a tte n tio n to th e m usc le , to se e h ow su ccessfu l g ro ups tr a n sla te c o nnectio n in to tr u stin g co opera tio n. When you w atc h hig hly co hesiv e gro ups in actio n, you w ill se e m an y mom en ts o f flu id , tr u stin g c o opera tio n. T hese m om en ts o fte n h ap pen w hen th e gro up is co nfro nte d w ith a to ugh obsta cle — fo r ex am ple , a SE A L te am nav ig atin g a tr a in in g c o urs e , o r a n im pro v c o m ed y te am n av ig atin g a sk etc h . With out c o m munic atio n o r p la n nin g, th e g ro up s ta rts to m ove a n d th in k a s o ne, fin din g its w ay th ro ugh th e o bsta cle in th e s a m e w ay th at a s c h ool o f f is h f in ds its w ay th ro ugh a c o ra l re ef, a s if th ey a re a ll w ir e d in to th e sa m e b ra in . It’ s beau tif u l. If y ou lo ok c lo se ly , h ow ev er, y ou w ill a ls o n otic e s o m eth in g e ls e . S prin kle d am id t h e s m ooth ness a n d f lu en cy a re m om en ts t h at d on’t f e el s o b eau tif u l. T hese mom en ts a re c lu nky, a w kw ard , a n d fu ll o f h ard q uestio ns. T hey c o nta in p uls e s of p ro fo und te n sio n, a s p eo ple d eal w ith h ard f e ed back a n d s tr u ggle to geth er to fig ure o ut w hat is g oin g o n. W hat’ s m ore , th ese m om en ts d on’t h ap pen b y accid en t. T hey h ap pen b y d esig n. At P ix ar, th ose u nco m fo rta b le m om en ts h ap pen in w hat th ey c all B ra in T ru st meetin gs. T he B ra in T ru st is P ix ar’s m eth od of asse ssin g an d im pro vin g its movie s d urin g th eir d ev elo pm en t. ( E ach f ilm is B ra in T ru ste d a b out h alf a d ozen tim es, a t r e g ula r i n te rv als .) T he m eetin g b rin gs t h e f ilm ’s d ir e cto r t o geth er w ith a han dfu l o f th e s tu dio ’s v ete ra n d ir e cto rs a n d p ro ducers , a ll o f w hom w atc h th e la te st v ers io n o f th e m ovie a n d o ffe r th eir c an did o pin io n. F ro m a d is ta n ce, th e Bra in T ru st a p pears to b e a ro utin e h uddle . U p c lo se , it’ s m ore lik e a p ain fu l med ic al pro ced ure — sp ecif ic ally , a dis se ctio n th at sp otlig hts , nam es, an d an aly zes t h e f ilm ’s f la w s i n b re ath ta k in g d eta il. A B ra in T ru st m eetin g is n ot fu n. It is w here d ir e cto rs are to ld th at th eir ch ara cte rs la ck h eart, th eir s to ry lin es a re c o nfu sin g, a n d th eir jo kes f a ll f la t. B ut it’ s a ls o w here th ose m ovie s g et b ette r. “ T he B ra in T ru st is th e m ost im porta n t th in g w e d o b y f a r,” s a id P ix ar p re sid en t E d C atm ull. “ It d ep en ds o n c o m ple te ly can did f e ed back .” In rh yth m a n d to ne, B ra in T ru st m eetin gs re se m ble th e a tm osp here in sid e th e co ck pit o f F lig ht 2 32. T hey c o nsis t o f a s te ad y s tr e am o f h ere ’s -th e-b ad -n ew s notif ic atio ns a cco m pan ie d b y a fe w b ig , s c ary q uestio ns— Does a nyb ody k n ow how to la nd th is th in g? P artic ip an ts s p en d m ost o f th e tim e in a s ta te o f b ro w – fu rro w in g s tr u ggle a s th ey g ra p ple w ith th e f a ct th at th e m ovie , a t th e m om en t, is n ’t w ork in g. “ A ll o ur m ovie s s u ck a t fir s t,” C atm ull s a y s. “ T he B ra in T ru st is where w e f ig ure o ut w hy t h ey s u ck , a n d i t’ s a ls o w here t h ey s ta rt t o n ot s u ck .” At th e N av y S E A Ls, su ch u nco m fo rta b le , c an dor-fille d m om en ts h ap pen in th e A fte r-A ctio n R ev ie w , o r A AR. T he A AR is a g ath erin g th at ta k es p la ce im med ia te ly a fte r e ach m is sio n o r tr a in in g se ssio n: T eam m em bers p ut d ow n th eir w eap ons, g ra b a s n ack a n d w ate r, a n d s ta rt ta lk in g. A s in B ra in T ru sts , th e te am m em bers n am e a n d a n aly ze p ro ble m s a n d fa ce u nco m fo rta b le q uestio ns head -o n: Where d id w e f a il? W hat d id e a ch o f u s d o, a nd w hy d id w e d o i t? W hat will w e d o d iffe re n tly n ext tim e? A ARs can b e ra w , p ain fu l, an d fille d w ith puls e s o f e m otio n a n d u ncerta in ty . “T hey ’re n ot re al fu n,” sa id C hris to pher B ald w in , a fo rm er o pera to r w ith SE A L T eam S ix . “ T hey c an g et te n se a t tim es. I ’v e n ev er s e en p eo ple f is tf ig ht, but it c an g et c lo se . S till, it’ s p ro bab ly th e m ost c ru cia l th in g w e d o to geth er, asid e fro m th e m is sio ns th em se lv es, b ecau se th at’ s w here w e fig ure o ut w hat re ally h ap pen ed a n d h ow t o g et b ette r.” While t h e S E A Ls a n d P ix ar g en era te t h ese m om en ts i n a s tr u ctu re d w ay , o th er gro ups u se lo ose r, m ore o rg an ic m eth ods. A t G ra m erc y T av ern , a N ew Y ork re sta u ra n t w hose s ta ff ra n ks a s th e c u lin ary w orld ’s v ers io n o f a S E A L te am , I watc h ed a s W hitn ey M acd onald w as m in ute s a w ay f ro m a m om en t s h e h ad lo ng an tic ip ate d : h er f ir s t- e v er s h if t a s a f ro nt w aite r. T he lu nch c ro w d w as lin in g u p on t h e s id ew alk , a n d s h e w as e x cite d a n d a b it n erv ous. Assis ta n t g en era l m an ag er S co tt R ein hard t a p pro ach ed h er— fo r a p ep ta lk , I pre su m ed . I w as w ro ng. “O kay ,” Rein hard t sa id , fix in g W hitn ey w ith a brig ht, pen etr a tin g g aze. “ T he o ne t h in g w e k now a b out t o day i s t h at i t’ s n ot g oin g t o g o perfe ctly . I m ean , i t co uld , b ut o dds a re r e ally , r e ally , r e ally h ig h t h at i t w on’t.” A flic k er o f s u rp ris e tr a v ele d a cro ss W hitn ey ’s fa ce. S he h ad tr a in ed fo r s ix month s fo r th is d ay , le arn in g ev ery p ain sta k in g d eta il o f th e jo b, h opin g to perfo rm w ell. S he h ad w ork ed a s a b ack se rv er, ta k en n ote s, sa t in o n lin eu p meetin gs, a n d s h ad ow ed s h if t a fte r s h if t. N ow s h e w as b ein g t o ld i n n o u ncerta in te rm s t h at s h e w as d estin ed t o s c re w u p. “S o h ere ’s h ow w e’ll k now if y ou h ad a g ood d ay ,” R ein hard t c o ntin ued . “ If you a sk fo r h elp te n tim es, th en w e’ll k now it w as g ood. If y ou tr y to d o it a ll alo ne… ” H is v oic e t r a ile d o ff, t h e i m plic atio n c le ar— It w ill b e a c a ta str o phe . On t h e f a ce o f i t, t h ese a w kw ard m om en ts a t P ix ar, t h e S E A Ls, a n d G ra m erc y Tav ern d on’t m ak e s e n se . T hese g ro ups s e em to in te n tio nally c re ate a w kw ard , pain fu l in te ra ctio ns th at lo ok lik e th e opposite of sm ooth co opera tio n. T he fa sc in atin g th in g is , h ow ev er, th ese a w kw ard , p ain fu l in te ra ctio ns g en era te th e hig hly c o hesiv e, tr u stin g b eh av io r n ecessa ry f o r s m ooth c o opera tio n. L et’ s lo ok deep er i n to h ow t h is h ap pen s. I m ag in e th at you an d a str a n ger ask each oth er th e fo llo w in g tw o se ts of q uestio ns. S ET A • What w as t h e b est g if t y ou e v er r e ceiv ed a n d w hy? • Desc rib e t h e l a st p et y ou o w ned . • Where d id y ou g o t o h ig h s c h ool? W hat w as y our h ig h s c h ool l ik e? • Who i s y our f a v orite a cto r o r a ctr e ss? S ET B • If a c ry sta l b all c o uld t e ll y ou t h e t r u th a b out y ours e lf , y our l if e , t h e f u tu re , or a n yth in g e ls e , w hat w ould y ou w an t t o k now ? • Is t h ere s o m eth in g t h at y ou’v e d re am ed o f d oin g f o r a l o ng t im e? W hy hav en ’t y ou d one i t? • What i s t h e g re ate st a cco m plis h m en t o f y our l if e ? • When d id y ou l a st s in g t o y ours e lf ? T o s o m eo ne e ls e ? At f ir s t g la n ce, th e tw o s e ts o f q uestio ns h av e a lo t in c o m mon. B oth a sk y ou t o d is c lo se p ers o nal i n fo rm atio n, t o t e ll s to rie s, t o s h are . H ow ev er, i f y ou w ere t o d o th is e x perim en t ( its f u ll f o rm c o nta in s th ir ty -s ix q uestio ns), y ou w ould n otic e tw o d if fe re n ces. T he f ir s t i s t h at a s y ou w en t t h ro ugh S et B , y ou w ould f e el a b it ap pre h en siv e. Your heart ra te would in cre ase . You would be more unco m fo rta b le . You would blu sh , hesita te , an d perh ap s la u gh out of nerv ousn ess. (It is n ot easy , afte r all, to te ll a str a n ger so m eth in g im porta n t you’v e d re am ed o f d oin g a ll y our l if e .) The se co nd d if fe re n ce is th at S et B w ould m ak e y ou a n d th e str a n ger fe el clo se r to each oth er— aro und 24 perc en t clo se r th an Set A , acco rd in g to ex perim en te rs . * W hile S et A a llo w s y ou to sta y in y our c o m fo rt z o ne, S et B gen era te s co nfe ssio n, dis c o m fo rt, an d au th en tic ity th at bre ak dow n barrie rs betw een p eo ple a n d tip th em in to a d eep er c o nnectio n. W hile S et A g en era te s in fo rm atio n, S et B g en era te s s o m eth in g m ore p ow erfu l: v uln era b ility . At so m e le v el, w e in tu itiv ely know th at vuln era b ility te n ds to sp ark co opera tio n a n d tr u st. B ut w e m ay n ot re aliz e h ow p ow erfu lly a n d re lia b ly th is pro cess w ork s, p artic u la rly w hen it c o m es to g ro up in te ra ctio ns. S o it’ s u se fu l to meet D r. J e ff P olz er, a p ro fe sso r o f o rg an iz atio nal b eh av io r a t H arv ard w ho h as sp en t a la rg e c h unk o f h is c are er e x am in in g h ow s m all, s e em in gly in sig nif ic an t so cia l e x ch an ges c an c re ate c asc ad e e ffe cts i n g ro ups. “P eo ple te n d to th in k o f v uln era b ility in a to uch y-fe ely w ay , b ut th at’ s n ot what’ s h ap pen in g,” P olz er s a y s. “ It’ s a b out s e n din g a r e ally c le ar s ig nal t h at y ou hav e w eak nesse s, t h at y ou c o uld u se h elp . A nd i f t h at b eh av io r b eco m es a m odel fo r o th ers , th en y ou c an s e t th e in se cu ritie s a sid e a n d g et to w ork , s ta rt to tr u st each o th er a n d h elp e ach o th er. I f y ou n ev er h av e t h at v uln era b le m om en t, o n t h e oth er h an d, th en p eo ple w ill tr y to c o ver u p th eir w eak nesse s, a n d e v ery little mic ro ta sk b eco m es a p la ce w here i n se cu ritie s m an if e st t h em se lv es.” Polz er p oin ts o ut th at v uln era b ility is le ss a b out th e s e n der th an th e re ceiv er. “T he s e co nd p ers o n i s t h e k ey ,” h e s a y s. “ D o t h ey p ic k i t u p a n d r e v eal t h eir o w n weak nesse s, o r d o th ey c o ver u p a n d p re te n d th ey d on’t h av e a n y? It m ak es a huge dif fe re n ce in th e outc o m e.” P olz er has beco m e sk ille d at sp ottin g th e mom en t w hen th e s ig nal tr a v els th ro ugh th e g ro up. “ Y ou c an a ctu ally s e e th e peo ple r e la x a n d c o nnect a n d s ta rt t o t r u st. T he g ro up p ic k s u p t h e i d ea a n d s a y s, ‘O kay , th is is th e m ode w e’re g oin g to b e in ,’ a n d it s ta rts b eh av in g a lo ng th ose lin es, a cco rd in g to th e n orm th at it’ s o kay to a d m it w eak ness a n d h elp e ach oth er.” The in te ra ctio n h e d esc rib es can b e calle d a v uln era b ility lo op. A sh are d ex ch an ge o f o pen ness, it’ s th e m ost b asic b uild in g b lo ck o f co opera tio n an d tr u st. V uln era b ility lo ops s e em s w if t a n d s p onta n eo us f ro m a d is ta n ce, b ut w hen you l o ok c lo se ly , t h ey a ll f o llo w t h e s a m e d is c re te s te p s: 1. Pers o n A s e n ds a s ig nal o f v uln era b ility . 2. Pers o n B d ete cts t h is s ig nal. 3. Pers o n B r e sp onds b y s ig nalin g t h eir o w n v uln era b ility . 4. Pers o n A d ete cts t h is s ig nal. 5. A n orm i s e sta b lis h ed ; c lo se n ess a n d t r u st i n cre ase . Consid er th e s itu atio n o f A l H ay nes o n F lig ht 2 32. H e w as th e c ap ta in o f th e pla n e, th e so urc e of pow er an d au th ority to w hom ev ery one lo oked fo r re assu ra n ce a n d d ir e ctio n. W hen t h e e x plo sio n k nock ed o ut t h e c o ntr o ls , h is f ir s t in stin ct w as to p la y th at ro le — to g ra b th e y oke a n d sa y , “ I g ot it.” (L ate r h e would c all th ose th re e w ord s “ th e d um best th in g I ’v e e v er s a id in m y lif e .” ) H ad he c o ntin ued in te ra ctin g w ith h is c re w in th is w ay , F lig ht 2 32 w ould h av e lik ely cra sh ed . B ut h e d id n ot c o ntin ue o n t h at p ath . H e w as a b le t o d o s o m eth in g e v en more d if fic u lt: to s e n d a s ig nal o f v uln era b ility , to c o m munic ate to h is c re w th at he n eed ed t h em . I t t o ok j u st f o ur w ord s: Anyb ody h ave a ny i d ea s? Lik ew is e , w hen p ilo t tr a in er D en ny F itc h e n te re d th e c o ck pit, h e c o uld h av e atte m pte d t o i s su e c o m man ds a n d t a k e c h arg e— afte r a ll, h e k new a s m uch , i f n ot more , a b out e m erg en cy p ro ced ure s a s H ay nes d id . I n ste ad , h e d id th e o pposite : He e x plic itly p ut h im se lf b en eath H ay nes a n d th e c re w , sig nalin g h is ro le a s help er: Tell m e w hat y o u w ant, a nd I ’ll h elp y o u. Each o f th ese s m all s ig nals to ok o nly a f e w s e co nds to d eliv er. B ut th ey w ere vita l, b ecau se th ey sh if te d th e d ynam ic , allo w in g tw o p eo ple w ho h ad b een se p ara te t o f u nctio n a s o ne. It’ s u se fu l to z o om in o n th is s h if t. A s it h ap pen s, s c ie n tis ts h av e d esig ned a n ex perim en t to d o e x actly th at, c alle d th e G iv e-S om e G am e. It w ork s lik e th is : You a n d a n oth er p ers o n, w hom y ou’v e n ev er m et, e ach g et fo ur to ken s. E ach to ken is w orth a d olla r if y ou k eep it b ut tw o d olla rs if y ou g iv e it to th e o th er pers o n. T he g am e c o nsis ts o f o ne d ecis io n: H ow m an y to ken s d o y ou g iv e th e oth er p ers o n? This is n ot a s im ple d ecis io n. I f y ou g iv e a ll, y ou m ig ht e n d u p w ith n oth in g. If y ou’re lik e m ost p eo ple , y ou e n d u p g iv in g a n a v era g e o f 2 .5 to ken s to a str a n ger— slig htly b ia se d to w ard c o opera tio n. W hat g ets in te re stin g, h ow ev er, is how p eo ple te n d to b eh av e w hen th eir v uln era b ility le v els a re in cre ase d a fe w notc h es. In o ne e x perim en t, su bje cts w ere a sk ed to d eliv er a sh ort p re se n ta tio n to a ro om fu l o f p eo ple w ho h ad b een in str u cte d b y e x perim en te rs to re m ain s to ne- fa ced an d sile n t. T hey pla y ed th e G iv e-S om e G am e afte rw ard . Y ou m ig ht im ag in e th at th e s u bje cts w ho e n dure d th is d if fic u lt e x perie n ce w ould re sp ond by beco m in g le ss co opera tiv e, but th e opposite tu rn ed out to be tr u e: th e sp eak ers ’ co opera tio n le v els in cre ase d by 50 perc en t. That m om en t of vuln era b ility d id n ot r e d uce w illin gness to c o opera te b ut b ooste d it. T he in vers e was a ls o tr u e: I n cre asin g p eo ple ’s s e n se o f p ow er— th at is , tw eak in g a s itu atio n to m ak e t h em f e el m ore i n vuln era b le — dra m atic ally d im in is h ed t h eir w illin gness to c o opera te . The l in k b etw een v uln era b ility a n d c o opera tio n a p plie s n ot o nly t o i n div id uals but als o to gro ups. In an ex perim en t by D av id D eS te n o of N orth easte rn Univ ers ity , partic ip an ts w ere ask ed to perfo rm a lo ng, te d io us ta sk on a co m pute r th at w as rig ged to c ra sh ju st a s th ey w ere c o m ple tin g it. T hen o ne o f th eir fe llo w p artic ip an ts (w ho w as actu ally a co nfe d era te o f th e re se arc h ers ) would w alk o ver, n otic e th e p ro ble m , a n d g en ero usly sp en d tim e “ fix in g” th e co m pute r, th ere b y re sc u in g th e partic ip an t fro m hav in g to re lo ad th e data . Afte rw ard th e p artic ip an ts p la y ed th e G iv e-S om e G am e. A s y ou m ig ht e x pect, th e s u bje cts w ere s ig nif ic an tly m ore c o opera tiv e w ith th e p ers o n w ho f ix ed th eir co m pute r. B ut h ere ’s th e th in g: T hey w ere e q ually c o opera tiv e w ith c o m ple te str a n gers . In o th er w ord s, th e fe elin gs o f tr u st an d clo se n ess sp ark ed b y th e vuln era b ility lo op w ere tr a n sfe rre d in fu ll str e n gth to so m eo ne w ho sim ply hap pen ed to be in th e ro om . The vuln era b ility lo op, in oth er w ord s, is co nta g io us. “W e fe el lik e tr u st is s ta b le , b ut e v ery s in gle m om en t y our b ra in is tr a ck in g your e n vir o nm en t, a n d ru nnin g a c alc u la tio n w heth er y ou c an tr u st th e p eo ple aro und y ou a n d b ond w ith th em ,” s a y s D eS te n o. “ T ru st c o m es d ow n to c o nte x t. And w hat d riv es it is th e s e n se th at y ou’re v uln era b le , th at y ou n eed o th ers a n d can ’t d o i t o n y our o w n.” Norm ally , w e th in k ab out tr u st an d v uln era b ility th e w ay w e th in k ab out sta n din g o n s o lid g ro und a n d le ap in g i n to t h e u nknow n: f ir s t w e b uild t r u st, th en we le ap . B ut sc ie n ce is sh ow in g u s th at w e’v e g ot it b ack w ard . V uln era b ility doesn ’t c o m e a fte r tr u st— it p re ced es it. L eap in g in to th e u nknow n, w hen d one alo ngsid e o th ers , c au se s t h e s o lid g ro und o f t r u st t o m ate ria liz e b en eath o ur f e et. — Questio n: H ow w ould y ou g o a b out fin din g te n la rg e re d b allo ons d ep lo yed a t se cre t l o catio ns t h ro ughout t h e U nite d S ta te s? This i s n ot a n e asy q uestio n. I t w as d re am ed u p b y s c ie n tis ts f ro m t h e D efe n se Advan ced Rese arc h Pro je cts Agen cy (D ARPA ), a div is io n of th e U.S . Dep artm en t of D efe n se ta sk ed w ith help in g A m eric a’s m ilita ry pre p are fo r fu tu re te ch nolo gic al ch alle n ges. T he R ed B allo on C halle n ge, w hic h D ARPA an nounced o n O cto ber 2 9, 2 009, w as d esig ned to m im ic r e al- lif e d ile m mas lik e te rro ris m a n d d is e ase c o ntr o l, a n d o ffe re d a $ 40,0 00 p riz e to th e fir s t g ro up to accu ra te ly l o cate a ll t e n b allo ons. T he i m men sity o f t h e t a sk — te n b allo ons i n 3 .1 millio n s q uare m ile s— le d s o m e t o w onder i f D ARPA h ad g one t o o f a r. A s e n io r an aly st fo r th e Natio nal Geo sp atia l- In te llig en ce Agen cy decla re d it “im possib le .” With in d ay s o f t h e a n nouncem en t, h undre d s o f g ro ups s ig ned u p, r e p re se n tin g a div ers e cro ss-s e ctio n of A m eric a’s brig hte st m in ds: hack ers , so cia l m ed ia en tr e p re n eu rs , te ch c o m pan ie s, a n d r e se arc h u niv ers itie s. T he v ast m ajo rity to ok a lo gic al a p pro ach to th e p ro ble m : T hey b uilt to ols to a tta ck it. T hey c o nstr u cte d se arc h e n gin es to a n aly ze s a te llite p hoto gra p hy te ch nolo gy, ta p ped in to e x is tin g so cia l a n d b usin ess n etw ork s, la u nch ed p ublic ity c am paig ns, b uilt o pen -s o urc e in te llig en ce s o ftw are , a n d n urtu re d c o m munitie s o f s e arc h ers o n s o cia l m ed ia . The te am f ro m M IT M ed ia L ab , o n th e o th er h an d, d id n’t d o a n y o f th at s tu ff becau se t h ey d id n’t f in d o ut a b out t h e c h alle n ge u ntil f o ur d ay s b efo re l a u nch . A gro up o f s tu den ts , le d b y p ostd octo ra l f e llo w R ile y C ra n e, r e aliz ed th ey h ad n o tim e to a sse m ble a te am o r c re ate te ch nolo gy o r d o a n yth in g th at re se m ble d a n org an iz ed a p pro ach . S o in ste ad th ey to ok a d if fe re n t ta ck . T hey b uilt a w eb site th at c o nsis te d o f t h e f o llo w in g i n vita tio n: When y ou s ig n u p t o j o in t h e M IT R ed B allo on C halle n ge T eam , you’ll b e p ro vid ed w ith a p ers o naliz ed i n vita tio n l in k, l ik e http ://b allo on.m it.e d u/ yourn am eh ere Hav e a ll y our f rie n ds s ig n u p u sin g y our p ers o naliz ed i n vita tio n. If a n yone y ou i n vite , o r a n yone t h ey i n vite , o r a n yone t h ey i n vite (… an d s o o n) w in s m oney , s o w ill y ou! We’re g iv in g $ 2000 p er b allo on t o t h e f ir s t p ers o n t o s e n d u s t h e co rre ct c o ord in ate s, b ut t h at’ s n ot a ll— we’re a ls o g iv in g $ 1000 t o th e p ers o n w ho i n vite d t h em . T hen w e’re g iv in g $ 500 [ to ] w hoev er in vite d t h e i n vite r, a n d $ 250 t o w hoev er i n vite d t h em , a n d s o o n… (s e e h ow i t w ork s). Com pare d t o t h e s o phis tic ate d t o ols a n d t e ch nolo gy d ep lo yed b y o th er g ro ups, th e M IT te am ’s a p pro ach w as la u ghab ly p rim itiv e. T hey h ad n o o rg an iz atio nal str u ctu re o r str a te g y o r so ftw are , n ot e v en a m ap o f th e U nite d S ta te s to h elp lo cate th e b allo ons. T his w asn ’t a w ell- e q uip ped te am ; it w as c lo se r to a h astily sc ra w le d p le a s h oved in to a b ottle a n d lo bbed in to th e o cean o f th e I n te rn et: “ If you f in d t h is , p le ase h elp !” On th e m orn in g o f D ecem ber 3 , tw o d ay s b efo re th e b allo on la u nch , M IT sw itc h ed o n th e w eb site . F or a f e w h ours , n oth in g h ap pen ed . T hen , a t 3 :4 2 P.M . on D ecem ber 3 , p eo ple b eg an to jo in . C onnectio ns f ir s t b lo om ed o ut o f B osto n, th en e x plo ded , ra d ia tin g to C hic ag o, L os A ngele s, S an F ra n cis c o , M in neap olis , Den ver, T ex as, a n d fa r b ey ond, in clu din g E uro pe. V ie w ed in tim e la p se , th e sp re ad o f c o nnectio ns r e se m ble d t h e s p onta n eo us a sse m bly o f a g ig an tic n erv ous sy ste m , w ith h undre d s o f n ew p eo ple j o in in g t h e e ffo rt w ith e ach p assin g h our. At pre cis e ly 10:0 0 A.M . E aste rn on D ecem ber 5, D ARPA la u nch ed th e ballo ons in se cre t lo catio ns ra n gin g fro m U nio n Square in dow nto w n San Fra n cis c o to a b ase b all fie ld o uts id e H ousto n, T ex as, to a w oodla n d p ark n ear Chris tia n a, D ela w are . T housa n ds o f te am s s w ung in to a ctio n, a n d th e o rg an iz ers se ttle d in f o r a lo ng w ait: T hey e stim ate d it w ould ta k e u p to a w eek f o r a te am to a ccu ra te ly l o cate a ll t e n b allo ons. Eig ht h ours , fif ty -tw o m in ute s, a n d fo rty -o ne s e co nds la te r, it w as o ver. T he MIT te am h ad fo und a ll te n b allo ons a n d h ad d one s o w ith th e h elp o f 4 ,6 65 peo ple — or as D ARPA org an iz er Pete r Lee put it, “a huge am ount of partic ip atio n fro m sh ock in gly little m oney .” Their prim itiv e, la st- m in ute , messa g e-in -a -b ottle m eth od h ad d efe ate d b ette r-e q uip ped atte m pts , cre atin g a fa st, d eep w av e o f m otiv ate d t e am work a n d c o opera tio n. The re aso n w as sim ple . A ll th e o th er te am s u se d a lo gic al, in cen tiv e-b ase d messa g e: Jo in u s o n th is p ro je ct, a nd y o u m ig ht w in m oney. T his s ig nal s o unds motiv atin g, b ut it d oesn ’t re ally en co ura g e co opera tio n— in fa ct, it d oes th e opposite . If y ou te ll o th ers ab out th e se arc h , y ou are slig htly re d ucin g y our ch an ces o f w in nin g p riz e m oney . (A fte r a ll, if o th ers fin d th e b allo on a n d y ou don’t, th ey ’ll re ceiv e th e en tir e re w ard .) These te am s were ask in g fo r partic ip an ts ’ v uln era b ility , w hile r e m ain in g i n vuln era b le t h em se lv es. The M IT t e am , o n t h e o th er h an d, s ig nale d i ts o w n v uln era b ility b y p ro m is in g th at e v ery one c o nnecte d to fin din g a re d b allo on w ould sh are in th e re w ard . Then it p ro vid ed p eo ple w ith th e o pportu nity to c re ate n etw ork s o f v uln era b ility by re ach in g o ut to th eir frie n ds, th en a sk in g th em to re ach o ut to th eir frie n ds. The t e am d id n ot d ic ta te w hat p artic ip an ts s h ould d o o r h ow t h ey s h ould d o i t, o r giv e t h em s p ecif ic ta sk s to c o m ple te o r te ch nolo gy to u se . I t s im ply g av e o ut t h e lin k a n d l e t p eo ple d o w ith i t w hat t h ey p le ase d . A nd w hat t h ey p le ase d , i t t u rn ed out, w as to c o nnect w ith lo ts o f o th er p eo ple . E ach in vita tio n c re ate d a n oth er vuln era b ility lo op th at d ro ve c o opera tio n— Hey, I’m d oin g th is c ra zy b allo on- huntin g p ro je ct a nd I n eed y o ur h elp . What m ad e th e d if fe re n ce in c o opera tio n, in o th er w ord s, w asn ’t h ow m an y peo ple a p ers o n re ach ed o r h ow g ood th eir b allo on-s e arc h te ch nolo gy w as— it wasn ’t r e ally a b out a g iv en in div id ual a t a ll. I t w as r a th er a b out h ow e ffe ctiv ely peo ple c re ate d re la tio nsh ip s o f m utu al ris k . T he R ed B allo on C halle n ge w asn ’t ev en re ally a te ch nolo gy c o nte st. It w as, lik e a ll e n deav ors th at s e ek to c re ate co opera tio n, a v uln era b ility -s h arin g c o nte st. The s to ry o f th e R ed B allo on C halle n ge s tr ik es u s a s s u rp ris in g, b ecau se m ost of u s in stin ctiv ely se e v uln era b ility as a co nditio n to b e h id den . B ut sc ie n ce sh ow s t h at w hen i t c o m es t o c re atin g c o opera tio n, v uln era b ility i s n ot a r is k b ut a psy ch olo gic al r e q uir e m en t. “W hat a re g ro ups r e ally f o r? ” P olz er a sk s. “ T he id ea is th at w e c an c o m bin e our s tr e n gth s a n d u se o ur s k ills in a c o m ple m en ta ry w ay . B ein g v uln era b le g ets th e sta tic o ut o f th e w ay a n d le ts u s d o th e jo b to geth er, w ith out w orry in g o r hesita tin g. I t l e ts u s w ork a s o ne u nit.” Afte r ta lk in g to P olz er a n d o th er sc ie n tis ts w ho stu dy tr u st, I b eg an to se e vuln era b ility lo ops in o th er p la ces I v is ite d . S om etim es th ey w ere s m all, q uic k ex ch an ges. A p ro b ase b all c o ach b eg an a s e aso n-o pen in g s p eech to h is p la y ers by sa y in g, “I w as so nerv ous ab out ta lk in g to you to day ,” an d th e pla y ers re sp onded b y s m ilin g s y m path etic ally — th ey w ere n erv ous t o o. S om etim es t h ese lo ops to ok th e fo rm of physic al obje cts , lik e th e F ailu re W all th at D un & Bra d str e et C re d ib ility C orp ora tio n b uilt, a w hite b oard w here p eo ple c o uld s h are mom en ts w here t h ey ’d f a lle n s h ort. Som etim es th ey w ere h ab its o f s e em in gly in vuln era b le le ad ers , s u ch a s A pple fo under S te v e Jo bs’s pen ch an t fo r beg in nin g co nvers a tio ns w ith th e phra se , “H ere ’s a dopey id ea.” (“ A nd so m etim es th ey w ere ,” re calls Jo nath an Iv e, Apple ’s s e n io r v ic e p re sid en t o f d esig n, in h is m em oria l to J o bs. “ R eally d opey . Som etim es t h ey w ere t r u ly d re ad fu l.” ) E ach l o op w as d if fe re n t, y et t h ey s h are d a deep er p atte rn : a n a ck now le d gm en t o f lim its , a k een a w are n ess o f th e g ro up natu re o f th e e n deav or. T he sig nal b ein g se n t w as th e sa m e: You h ave a ro le here . I n eed y o u . “T hat’ s w hy g ood te am s te n d to d o a lo t o f e x tr e m e s tu ff to geth er,” D eS te n o sa y s. “ A c o nsta n t s tr e am o f v uln era b ility g iv es t h em a m uch r ic h er, m ore r e lia b le estim ate o n w hat th eir tr u stw orth in ess is , a n d b rin gs th em c lo se r, so th ey c an ta k e s till m ore r is k s. I t b uild s o n i ts e lf .” The m ech an is m o f c o opera tio n c an b e s u m med u p a s fo llo w s: Exch anges o f vu ln era bility , w hic h w e n atu ra lly te n d to a vo id , a re th e p ath w ay th ro ugh w hic h tr u stin g c o opera tio n is b uilt . T his id ea is u se fu l b ecau se it g iv es u s a g lim pse in sid e th e m ach in ery o f te am work . C oopera tio n, a s w e’ll s e e, d oes n ot s im ply desc en d o ut o f th e b lu e. I t is a g ro up m usc le th at is b uilt a cco rd in g to a s p ecif ic patte rn o f re p eate d in te ra ctio n, a n d th at p atte rn is a lw ay s th e s a m e: a c ir c le o f peo ple e n gag ed in th e ris k y, o ccasio nally p ain fu l, u ltim ate ly re w ard in g p ro cess of b ein g v uln era b le t o geth er. More im med ia te ly , th e id ea o f v uln era b ility lo ops is u se fu l b ecau se it h elp s illu m in ate c o nnectio ns b etw een s e em in gly d is p ara te w orld s. F or e x am ple , w hy are certa in gro ups of co m ed ia n s so su ccessfu l? H ow is th e w orld ’s m ost noto rio us b an d o f je w el th ie v es str u ctu re d ? A nd w hat d oes c arry in g a ro und a re ally h eav y lo g h av e to d o w ith c re atin g th e b est S pecia l F orc es te am s o n th e pla n et? * The q uestio ns w ere d ev elo ped b y p sy ch olo gis ts A rth ur a n d E la in e A ro n. I n i ts f u ll f o rm , t h e E xperim en ta l Gen era tio n o f I n te rp ers o nal C lo se n ess a ls o i n clu des f o ur m in ute s o f s ile n t g azin g i n to e ach o th er’s e y es. The o rig in al e x perim en t w as d one w ith s e v en ty -o ne p air s o f s tr a n gers , a n d o ne p air e n ded u p m arry in g. (T hey i n vite d t h e e n tir e l a b t o t h e c ere m ony.) D ra per K auffm an’s T ru st M ach in e O ne o f th e tr a its th at s e t N av y S E A L te am s a p art is th eir c o m bin atio n o f s te alth a n d a d ap ta b ility . T hey c an r e lia b ly n av ig ate c o m ple x a n d d an gero us la n dsc ap es i n c o m ple te sile n ce. T his is o ne o f th e re aso ns S E A Ls a re c h ose n to ta k e o n o pera tio ns lik e th e m is sio n to k ill O sa m a b in L ad en , th e m is sio n to re sc u e C ap ta in R ic h ard P hillip s o n t h e Maersk A la bam a, a n d t h ousa n ds o f l o w er-p ro file b ut e q ually ris k y m is sio ns. T he S E A Ls c all th is c o m bin atio n o f s k ills “ p la y in g p ic k up b ask etb all.” L ik e a n y g ood p ic k up t e am , t h ey d on’t n eed t o t a lk t o o m uch o r f o llo w s o m e p re d ete rm in ed p la n ; t h ey j u st p la y t h e g am e. “W e w ere o nce te am ed o n a m is sio n w ith R an gers ,” o ne fo rm er T eam S ix c o m man der t o ld m e, r e fe rrin g t o t h e a rm y’s S pecia l F orc es t e am s. “ T he R an gers c o m man der a n d I w ere to geth er [a t a n earb y b ase ] o bse rv in g th e [d ro ne v id eo ] f e ed o f th e m is sio n. T he e n tir e tim e th e R an ger c o m man der w as o n th e ra d io w ith h is g uys. H e w as ta lk in g, g iv in g o rd ers — ‘D o th is , lo ok o ut fo r th at.’ H e w as actin g lik e a co ach on th e sid elin es yellin g pla y s. A t so m e poin t th is c o m man der n otic es I ’m n ot s a y in g a w ord , a n d h e g iv es m e th is lo ok, a lm ost in d is b elie f. L ik e, why a re n ’t yo u te llin g yo ur g uys w hat to d o? It w as p re tty s tr ik in g. O ur g uys an d th eir g uys, d oin g th e sa m e m is sio n. H e’s ta lk in g th e w hole tim e, a n d w e a re n ’t s a y in g a th in g. A nd th e a n sw er is , beca use w e d on’t n eed t o . I k now m y g uys a re g oin g t o s o lv e t h e p ro ble m s t h em se lv es.” With in m ilita ry cir c le s, th ere are se v era l th eo rie s o n w hy th e S E A Ls are s k ille d a t p la y in g p ic k up b ask etb all. S om e p oin t to th e rig ors o f th e se le ctio n p ro gra m , th at ste ep p yra m id o f m en ta l, e m otio nal, a n d p hysic al tr a in in g fro m whic h o nly a s m all p erc en ta g e o f c an did ate s e m erg e. O th ers p oin t to th e h ig h quality o f t h e i n div id uals w ho a re d ra w n t o t h e u nit, a n d t o i ts r e le n tle ss e th os o f se lf -im pro vem en t. All t h ese t h eo rie s m ak e s e n se , b ut t h ey d o n ot s u ffic e. T ra in in g f o r t h e a rm y’s Delta F orc e, fo r e x am ple , is e q ually d if fic u lt a n d e v en m ore s e le ctiv e. (It h as a 95 p erc en t d ro pout ra te , a s o ppose d to 6 7 p erc en t fo r S E A Ls.) O th er sp ecia l opera tio ns gro ups dra w hig h-q uality in div id uals an d cen te r on re le n tle ss im pro vem en t. S o w hy d o S E A L te am s w ork s o w ell to geth er? A nd a s y ou d ig fo r th e a n sw er, a t s o m e p oin t y ou re ach th e s to ry o f a s k in ny, n ears ig hte d , a n d tita n ic ally s tu bborn n av y r e je ct n am ed D ra p er K au ffm an . Kau ffm an w as b orn in 1 911, th e o nly so n o f th e le g en dary n av y ad m ir a l Ja m es “ S to rm y” K au ffm an . H e w as w hat m odern p sy ch olo gis ts w ould te rm a n oppositio nal ch ild . H e w as k een ly aw are o f w hat p eo ple w an te d o f h im an d te n ded to d o th e r e v ers e . W hen h e w as f iv e, h e g ot in tr o uble f o r s ta y in g o uts id e th e h ouse to o la te . “ H urry u p a n d s p an k m e s o I c an g o b ack o ut a n d p la y ,” h e to ld h is m oth er. A m ed io cre s tu den t w ho w as c h id ed fo r la zin ess b y h is fa th er, Kau ffm an g ra d uate d f ro m th e N av al A cad em y in 1 933. W hen h is p oor e y esig ht pre v en te d h im fro m g ettin g a n o ffic er’s c o m mis sio n, h e q uit th e m ilita ry a n d to ok a j o b w ith a s h ip pin g c o m pan y. Then a s W orld W ar I I a p pro ach ed , h e q uit th at jo b s o h e c o uld v olu nte er a s a driv er f o r A m eric an V olu nte er A m bula n ce C orp s. H is p are n ts a n d s is te r, f e arin g fo r h is s a fe ty , w ro te l e tte rs a sk in g h im t o r e co nsid er. H is r e sp onse w as t o r e q uest a p ostin g to th e m ost d an gero us p la ce p ossib le : th e n orth ern p art o f th e M ag in ot Lin e, w here H itle r had am asse d his tr o ops to in vad e F ra n ce. S hortly afte r Kau ffm an a rriv ed i n F eb ru ary 1 940, t h e w ar b eg an . Kau ffm an ’s f ir s t j o b w as t o d riv e t h e a m bula n ce t h ro ugh t h e b attle fie ld t o p ic k up w ounded . H e w as u npre p are d fo r th e ch ao tic re alitie s o f b attle . “I n ev er would h av e d one th is if I ’d k now n w hat it w ould b e lik e,” h e w ro te . “ S o m an y sh ells e x plo ded in th e r o ad a h ead … th at m y o nly in stin ct w as to d riv e a s f a st a s possib le a n d I d am n n ear w re ck ed th e c ar d oin g it. A fte r w e g ot [ th e w ounded ] tr a n sfe rre d to a n oth er a m bula n ce to g o b ack to th e h osp ita l, I s a t in m y d riv er’s se at a n d s ta rte d s h ak in g l ik e a l e af.” Aro und th is tim e K au ffm an en co unte re d a gro up of F re n ch so ld ie rs w ho re p re se n te d ev ery th in g h e w as n ot. T he C orp s F ra n c w as an elite g ro up o f volu nte ers w hose jo b w as to s n eak b eh in d e n em y lin es, d is ru pt c o m munic atio n, ta k e p ris o ners , an d w re ak h av oc. T hey w ere o rg an iz ed in sm all te am s, each carry in g lig ht arm s an d ex plo siv es. K au ffm an w as str u ck b y th eir b ro th erly co nnectio n, w hic h f a r e x ceed ed a n yth in g h e h ad e n co unte re d b ack a t th e N av al Acad em y. “Y ou w ere eith er accep te d by th e C orp s Fra n c or you w ere n ’t accep te d , a n d th e tw o w ere m ile s a p art,” h e w ro te h is fa m ily . “ T here w asn ’t an yth in g th ey w ould n’t d o f o r y ou. I f o ne m em ber o f th e p atr o l w as tr a p ped a n d th ere w ere f iv e o th ers , t h ey w ould a tta ck f if ty G erm an s t o t r y t o f re e t h e o ne m an who w as t r a p ped .” Over th e c o urs e o f s ix w eek s, K au ffm an s p en t d ay s a n d n ig hts w ith th e C orp s Fra n c, w itn essin g th eir n ig htly r itu als o f to astin g th e d ead , a n d th eir c o ol u nder en em y f ir e . “ Y ou s in cere ly c all a m an a f rie n d in a v ery s h ort tim e w hen th in gs are h ot,” h e w ro te . “ T his c lim ax ed o ne d ay w hen I p ic k ed T oin e [a m em ber o f th e C orp s] o ff th e f ie ld w ith h is f a ce h alf g one, o ne a rm s h ot to p ie ces, a n d h is le ft f o ot g one. W hen w e g ot h im in to th e lig ht o f th e P oste d e S eco urs , I a lm ost gav e w ay , an d h e d id n’t h elp an y b y w in kin g at m e w ith h is g ood ey e an d sq ueezin g m y h an d w ith h is g ood o ne.” Afte r th e M ag in ot L in e w as overru n, K au ffm an tr a v ele d to B rita in an d volu nte ere d w ith th e b om b-d is p osa l u nit o f th e B ritis h N av al R ese rv es. In J u ne 1943 h e r e tu rn ed to th e S ta te s a n d jo in ed th e N av al R ese rv e. W ord s p re ad a b out th is s k in ny lie u te n an t w ith a ta le n t fo r b om b d is p osa l, a n d h e w as s e n t to F ort Pie rc e, Flo rid a, assig ned th e ta sk of se le ctin g an d tr a in in g so ld ie rs fo r underw ate r d em olitio n u nits t h at w ould p en etr a te t h e G erm an d efe n se s a lo ng t h e Fre n ch an d N orth A fric an co asts . T he ex pecta tio n w as th at K au ffm an w ould fo llo w th e nav y’s te m pla te fo r tr a in in g sp ecia liz ed te am s: a fe w w eek s of modera te ly str e n uous se le ctio n a n d tr a in in g, o vers e en b y o ffic ers . In ste ad , h e th re w o ut t h e t e m pla te a n d d ecid ed t o r e -c re ate t h e C orp s F ra n c. Fir s t, K au ffm an c re ate d H ell W eek , a w eek lo ng s e le ctio n p ro gra m f ille d w ith Mag in ot L in e le v els o f p ain , f e ar, a n d c o nfu sio n, f e atu rin g f o ur-m ile o pen -w ate r sw im s, o bsta cle co urs e s, h an d-to -h an d co m bat tr a in in g, te n -m ile ru ns, p altr y am ounts o f s le ep , a n d a c u rio us te le p hone-p ole -lif tin g e x erc is e h e’d s e en B ritis h co m man dos u se t o b uild s tr e n gth a n d t e am work . T hose w ho s u rv iv ed H ell W eek (2 5 to 3 5 p erc en t o f th e c la ss) w ere g iv en e ig ht to te n w eek s o f sp ecia liz ed tr a in in g w here th ey le arn ed a n d h oned th e m ore r e fin ed s k ills th ey w ould u se in th e f ie ld . Seco nd, K au ffm an d ecre ed th at e v ery a sp ect o f th e tr a in in g b e te am -b ase d . In ste ad o f o pera tin g s o lo , tr a in ees w ere p ut in to g ro ups o f s ix (th e n um ber th at fit in n av y-is su e r u bber r a fts ) a n d k ep t to geth er th ro ugh th e d ura tio n o f tr a in in g. What’ s m ore , e ach te am h ad to b e se lf -s u ffic ie n t, a b le to n av ig ate a ro und o r th ro ugh a n y o bsta cle w ith out r e ly in g o n s o m e c en tr a l c o m man d. Thir d , K au ffm an e lim in ate d th e h ie ra rc h ic al d is tin ctio n b etw een o ffic er a n d en lis te d m an . In h is p ro gra m , e v ery one d id th e tr a in in g, n o m atte r th eir ra n k. This , o f c o urs e , in clu ded K au ffm an . T he e n lis te d m en o f th e f ir s t c la ss to ok o ne lo ok a t t h eir u ngain ly , n ears ig hte d c o m man der a n d r e ach ed t h e s a m e c o nclu sio n: There w as n o w ay th is g uy w ould m ak e it. B ut as th e tr a in ees w atc h ed , h e pro ved t h em w ro ng. “W e w ere te stin g [ K au ffm an ] a ll a lo ng,” w ro te D an D illo n, a m em ber o f th e fir s t d em olitio n c la ss, “ b ut m y r e sp ect f o r h im d eep en ed b ecau se a l o t o f o ffic ers will te ll y ou w hat to d o, b ut th ey w on’t d o it th em se lv es. T his m an … ask s fo r su ggestio ns. If th ey ’re good, he use s th em … .A nd he partic ip ate s in ev ery th in g… .T he d ir tie st, ro tte n est jo bs th at w e ta ck le , h e is in th ere d oin g a s well a s t h e r e st o f u s. H ow c o uld y ou n ot r e sp ect h im ?” The t e am s t h at g ra d uate d f ro m K au ffm an ’s m ak esh if t t r a in in g p ro gra m w ere a su ccess fro m th e sta rt, fro m O m ah a B each to th e P acif ic . In th e 1 960s, w hen Pre sid en t Jo hn Ken ned y ex pan ded th e natio n’s unco nven tio nal warfa re cap ab ilitie s, K au ffm an ’s tr a in in g p ro gra m w as u se d as th e te m pla te fo r w hat becam e th e S E A L te am s, a n d it r e m ain s s o to th is d ay . A ll o f w hic h a d ds u p to an u nusu al s itu atio n: T he w orld ’s m ost s o phis tic ate d a n d e ffe ctiv e m ilita ry t e am s are b ein g b uilt b y a n o utd ate d , p rim itiv e, w holly u nsc ie n tif ic p ro gra m t h at h asn ’t ch an ged i n i ts e sse n tia ls s in ce t h e 1 940s. “I c all it ‘u nco nsc io us g en iu s,’   ” o ne S E A L tr a in in g o ffic er te lls m e. “ T he peo ple w ho b uilt t h e o rig in al t r a in in g p ro gra m d id n’t c o m ple te ly u nders ta n d why th is w as th e b est w ay to b uild te am s, b ut th ey u nders to od th at it was th e b est way . I t w ould b e s o e asy n ow to g o b ack a n d c h an ge th in gs, to m odern iz e th em in s o m e w ay . B ut w e d on’t, b ecau se w e a p pre cia te t h e r e su lts .” If y ou g o to S E A L tr a in in g s ite s, y ou w ill f in d D ra p er K au ffm an ’s te le p hone pole s. T hey are sta ck ed in th e dunes near th e SE A L obsta cle co urs e s in Coro nad o an d V ir g in ia B each . T hey lo ok lik e re m nan ts fro m a co nstr u ctio n pro je ct, b ut S E A L c o m man ders c o nsid er t h em s a cre d o bje cts . “ L og P T [ p hysic al tr a in in g] is th e le n s th ro ugh w hic h y ou c an v ie w e v ery th in g th at h ap pen s h ere ,” sa id T om F re em an , a S E A L co m man der. *1 “It cap tu re s th e esse n ce o f ev ery ev olu tio n, b ecau se i t’ s a b out t e am work .” Log PT is not co m plic ate d . B asic ally , it co nsis ts of six SE A L tr a in ees perfo rm in g a n a sso rtm en t o f m an eu vers t h at s e em m ore a p pro pria te t o a n A m is h barn ra is in g. T hey lif t, c arry , a n d ro ll th e lo g. T hey m ove it fro m s h ould er to sh ould er a n d p ush it w ith th eir f e et. T hey d o s it- u ps w hile c ra d lin g it, a n d th ey sta n d f o r l o ng p erio ds w hile h old in g i t o verh ead w ith e x te n ded a rm s. T here i s n o str a te g y, n o te ch niq ue, n oth in g th at c alls fo r h ig her le v els o f th ought, s k ill, o r re fle ctio n. W hat s e ts L og P T a p art i s i ts a b ility t o d eliv er t w o c o nditio ns: i n te n se vuln era b ility a lo ng w ith d eep i n te rc o nnecte d ness. L et’ s t a k e t h em o ne b y o ne. Fir s t, v uln era b ility . I n S E A L v ern acu la r, y ou d o n ot do L og P T . Y ou get L og- PT ed . In th e v ast sto re h ouse o f p ain th at co m pris e s S E A L tr a in in g, L og P T deliv ers s o m e o f th e h ig hest, p ure st le v els o f a g ony. “ T here a re tim es w hen th e in str u cto rs w ill te ll y ou to b e a t th e O -C ours e in th ir ty m in ute s, a n d th at’ s w hen you re aliz e: ‘H oly sh it, w e’re g ettin g L og-P T ed ,’   ” F re em an sa y s. “ T hey se n d you to lu nch f ir s t s o y ou h av e tim e to f u el u p a n d d re ad it. T he w ors t p art is th e an tic ip atio n. Y ou’re th ir ty se co nds in to a n in ety -m in ute ev olu tio n, an d y our sh ould ers a re b urn in g, a n d y ou’re re aliz in g th at y ou’v e g ot a n h our a n d a h alf more t o g o.” Seco nd, in te rc o nnecte d ness. T he w eig ht ( a ro und 2 50 p ounds) a n d le n gth ( te n fe et) o f t h e l o g l e n d i t m assiv e i n ertia ; e x ecu tin g c o ord in ate d m an eu vers r e q uir e s each te am m em ber to a p ply th e r ig ht a m ount o f f o rc e a t th e r ig ht tim e, a n d th e only w ay t o d o t h is i s t o p ay k een a tte n tio n t o y our t e am mate s. C oncep tu ally , i t’ s lik e tr y in g to tw ir l a b ato n w ith o ne h an d: If y our fin gers an d th um b w ork to geth er w ith th e p ro per tim in g, th e ta sk is s im ple ; if th e tim in g o f o ne f in ger is off, e v en b y a fra ctio n o f a se co nd, it’ s im possib le . T hat’ s w hy a p hysic ally weak er te am th at’ s w ork in g in sy nc c an su cceed in L og P T , w hile a b ig ger, str o nger g ro up c an f a ll a p art, p hysic ally a n d m en ta lly . These tw o c o nditio ns c o m bin e to d eliv er a h ig hly p artic u la r se n sa tio n: th e poin t w here vuln era b ility m eets in te rc o nnectio n. Y ou are in im men se pain , in ch es fro m y our te am mate s, c lo se e n ough to fe el th eir b re ath o n th e b ack o f your n eck . W hen a t e am mate f a lte rs o r m ak es a w ro ng m ove, y ou c an f e el i t, a n d you k now t h at t h ey c an f e el i t w hen y ou d o t h e s a m e. I t a d ds u p t o a c h oic e. Y ou can f o cu s o n y ours e lf , o r y ou c an f o cu s o n t h e t e am a n d t h e t a sk . When L og P T is d one p oorly , th e lo g b uck s a n d r o lls , th e tr a in ees f ig ht e ach oth er, a n d e m otio ns r is e . W hen L og P T is d one w ell, it lo oks s m ooth a n d q uie t. But th at sm ooth ness is an illu sio n, becau se ju st ben eath th e su rfa ce co m munic atio n is h ap pen in g. It ta k es th e fo rm o f a lm ost- in vis ib le e x ch an ges: Som eo ne w eak en s, a n d t h e p eo ple n ex t t o h im a d ju st t h eir e ffo rts t o k eep t h e l o g le v el a n d s te ad y. S om eo ne’s g rip s lip s, a n d th e te am mate s in sta n tly m ak e u p th e dif fe re n ce. A c o nvers a tio n t r a v els b ack a n d f o rth t h ro ugh t h e f ib ers o f t h e l o g: 1. A t e am mate f a lte rs . 2. Oth ers s e n se i t, a n d r e sp ond b y t a k in g o n m ore p ain f o r t h e s a k e o f t h e gro up. 3. Bala n ce i s r e g ain ed . Than ks to Dra p er Kau ffm an , th is ex ch an ge of vuln era b ility an d in te rc o nnectio n is w oven in to e v ery a sp ect o f S E A L tr a in in g a n d e n sh rin ed in a se t o f ir o n v alu es. E very th in g is d one a s a g ro up. T ra in ees m ust k eep tr a ck o f one a n oth er a t a ll tim es; th ere is n o g re ate r sin th an lo sin g tr a ck o f so m eo ne. Durin g b oat e x erc is e s, tr a in ees c o nsta n tly tr a d e p ositio ns a n d le ad ers h ip ro le s. Tim ed p erfo rm an ces o n r u ns a re s u ppose d t o b e h eld t o a n u nbre ak ab le s ta n dard , but in str u cto rs h av e b een k now n to b en d th ose s ta n dard s fo r ru nners w ho s lo w dow n in o rd er to h elp o th ers , b ecau se th ey v alu e th e w illin gness o f o ne p ers o n ta k in g a r is k f o r t h e s a k e o f t h e t e am . “W e’re a ll a b out s e ek in g th e m ic ro ev en t,” F re em an s a y s. “ E very e v olu tio n is a l e n s t o l o ok f o r t e am work m om en ts , a n d w e b elie v e t h at i f y ou s titc h t o geth er a lo t o f o pportu nitie s, y ou s ta rt t o k now w ho t h e g ood t e am mate s w ill b e. I t c o m es out at th e o ddest tim es. F or in sta n ce, le t’ s sa y th ey ’re ru nnin g la te an d th e in str u cto rs a re g oin g to h am mer th em . D oes so m eb ody ju st u rg e e v ery one to hurry u p a n d ta k e o ff r u nnin g? O r d o th ey s to p a n d s a y , ‘ L ook, w e’re g onna g et ham mere d f o r b ein g l a te a n yw ay , s o l e t’ s t a k e a m in ute a n d g et o ur g ear t ig ht, s o when w e s h ow u p w e’re a h undre d p erc en t r e ad y.’ T here ’s s o m eth in g a b out th at se co nd g uy th at w e w an t. W e w an t to b e w ith h im b ecau se h e’s n ot th in kin g ab out h im se lf ; h e’s t h in kin g o f t h e t e am .” Seen i n t h is w ay , t h e h ig h l e v el o f c o opera tio n a m ong S E A Ls i s n ot a s u rp ris e but c lo se r to a n in ev ita b ility . T hey c o opera te w ell b ecau se K au ffm an ’s tr a in in g pro gra m gen era te s th ousa n ds of mic ro ev en ts th at build clo se n ess an d co opera tio n. “It’ s m ore th an ju st te am work ,” Fre em an sa y s. “Y ou’v e le ft yours e lf w id e o pen . E very body o n y our te am k now s w ho y ou a re , b ecau se y ou le ft it all o n th e ta b le . A nd if y ou d id w ell, it b uild s a le v el o f tr u st th at’ s ex ponen tia lly h ig her t h an a n yth in g y ou c an g et a n yw here e ls e .” The P ow er o f th e H aro ld One e v en in g in 1 999, L orn e M ic h aels , p ro ducer o f Satu rd ay N ig ht L iv e, le ft h is pen th ouse o n W est S ix ty -n in th S tr e et in N ew Y ork a n d h ead ed s o uth to a ru n- dow n p art o f C hels e a. T here h e w alk ed in to a s ix ty -s e at th eate r th at, u ntil a f e w month s b efo re , h ad b een h om e to th e H arm ony B urle sq ue a ll- n ude str ip c lu b. The air em an ate d m yste rio us sm ells ; th e D um pste r near th e back en tr a n ce ru stle d w ith r a ts . I n th re e y ears , c ity in sp ecto rs w ould s h ut th e th eate r d ow n f o r fir e co de v io la tio ns. B ut th is n ig ht M ic h aels w as n ot p ay in g atte n tio n to th e se ttin g. H e h ad c o m e t o s c o ut t a le n t. Mic h aels opera te d w ith in th e co m ed y eco sy ste m lik e an orc h id co lle cto r: se ek in g, lo catin g, an d g ath erin g th e b est sp ecie s. In th e p ast, h e h ad lo cate d re m ark ab le b lo om s o f ta le n t in h is h om eto w n o f T oro nto , in C hic ag o’s S eco nd City , at Im pro vO ly m pic , an d in oth er lo cale s. B ut in re cen t m onth s a new sp ecie s o f c o m ed ia n h ad a rriv ed : s m art, f e arle ss e n se m ble s w ith h ig h v erb al I Q an d a r a u nch y in ven tiv en ess. T hey w ere c o lo niz in g th e e n te rta in m en t la n dsc ap e with b re ath ta k in g s p eed , th e v an guard o f a n in vasio n th at w ould s ta r in a n d/o r write fo r The O ffic e, T he D aily S how , 3 0 R ock, T he C olb ert R ep ort, P ark s a nd Recre a tio n, C om munity , C onan, K ey & P eele , B ro ad C ity , B ob’s B urg ers, N ew Gir l, T he L ea gue, G ir ls , an d Veep —not to m en tio n m ovie s lik e Anch orm an, Talla deg a N ig hts , B rin g it O n, an d Brid esm aid s, am ong o th ers . T hey calle d th em se lv es t h e U prig ht C itiz en s B rig ad e. *2 The r e m ark ab le th in g a b out th e U CB, f ro m M ic h aels ’s p ers p ectiv e, w as th eir dep th . W hile m ost o th er i m pro v g ro ups p ro duced a s m all h an dfu l o f g re at t e am s, UCB p ro duced d ozen s, a ll o f w hic h c o uld p erfo rm w ith r e m ark ab le s k ill. W hat’ s more , U CB d id n’t se em a t fir s t g la n ce a ll th at d if fe re n t fro m S eco nd C ity o r Im pro vO ly m pic o r a n y o f th e o th er c o m ed y g ro ups. A ll w ere in flu en ced b y th e la te co m ed y le g en d D el C lo se ; all offe re d im pro v cla sse s to cre ate fe ed er sy ste m s o f n ew co m ers ; a ll s h are d a b oundary -b re ak in g, a n yth in g-g oes a esth etic . In fa ct, th e o nly d is c ern ib le d if fe re n ce w as th at U CB tr a in ed its co m ed ia n s alm ost e x clu siv ely u sin g a s tr a n ge a n d d if fic u lt i m pro v g am e c alle d t h e H aro ld . Most i m pro v g am es a re b uilt o n s im plic ity a n d s p eed — cre atin g b rie f s k etc h es in re sp onse to a u die n ce p ro m pts — but th e H aro ld is d if fe re n t b ecau se it is lo ng an d c o m ple x . It re q uir e s e ig ht p eo ple , c o nta in s n in e in te rw eav in g sc en es, a n d la sts a ro und f o rty m in ute s— an e te rn ity in th e a tte n tio n-d efic it- d is o rd er w orld o f im pro v. T he H aro ld is h ard to te ach a n d h ard to le arn , a n d a s a re su lt it o fte n en ds in s p ecta cu la r fa ilu re . D el C lo se fa m ously lik en ed a s u ccessfu l H aro ld to watc h in g a g ro up o f p eo ple tu m ble d ow n th e s ta ir s a t th e s a m e tim e a n d a ll la n d on th eir fe et. T he v ast m ajo rity o f th e tim e, h ow ev er, p eo ple ju st tu m ble d ow n th e s ta ir s . The s tr u ctu re o f a H aro ld i s a s f o llo w s: • Gro up O pen in g • Fir s t B eat: S cen es 1 A , 1 B , 1 C ( tw o p eo ple e ach s c en e) • Gro up G am e • Seco nd B eat: S cen es 2 A , 2 B , 2 C • Gro up G am e • Thir d B eat: S cen es 3 A , 3 B , 3 C Don’t w orry if y ou c an ’t fo llo w it— in a w ay th at’ s th e p oin t, b ecau se in a Haro ld y ou h av e to c o m e u p w ith in te rlin kin g s c en es o n th e f ly w ith s e v en o th er peo ple ; s o t h at a ll t h e “ A ” s c en es c o nnect, a ll t h e “ B ” s c en es c o nnect, a n d s o o n. It r e q uir e s y ou t o p ay d eep a tte n tio n t o w hat t h e U CB c alls “ g am e,” o r t h e c o m ic co re o f e ach s c en e, a n d t o h old t h ose t h re ad s i n y our m in d, c allin g b ack p re v io us co nnectio ns a s y ou b uild n ew o nes. Unlik e o th er co m ed y g ro ups, th e U CB d id n’t p erfo rm H aro ld s o nce in a while . T hey w ere o bse sse d w ith H aro ld s. T here w ere H aro ld te am s, H aro ld nig hts , H aro ld c la sse s, H aro ld c o m petitio ns, a n d H aro ld p ra ctic es, a s w ell a s pra ctic es d ev ote d to a n aly zin g e ach e le m en t o f th e H aro ld . T he w alls o f th eir th eate r w ere c o vere d w ith p hoto s o f th eir b est H aro ld te am s. A s o ne o bse rv er sa id , U CB’s re la tio nsh ip to H aro ld s w as ro ughly th e sa m e as th e C ath olic Churc h ’s re la tio nsh ip to c ele b ra tin g M ass. A ll o f w hic h a d ds u p to a c u rio us situ atio n: U CB w as c re atin g s o m e o f th e m ost c o hesiv e c o m ic e n se m ble s o n th e pla n et b y s p en din g a h uge a m ount o f t im e d oin g a n a ctiv ity t h at p ro duced m ostly pain a n d a w kw ard ness. To fin d o ut m ore , I g o to a H aro ld N ig ht a t U CB’s n ew (u nsm elly a n d ra t- fre e) th eate r o n W est T w en ty -s ix th S tr e et in C hels e a. I fin d a se at an d sta rt ch attin g w ith m y n eig hbor, a w om an n am ed V ale rie , w ho lik e m an y in th e au die n ce is en ro lle d in U CB cla sse s, h opin g to m ak e it o nto a H aro ld te am so m ed ay . S he h as c o m e n ot to b e e n te rta in ed b ut to le arn . “ I’m w atc h in g fo r te ch niq ue, m ostly ,” s h e s a y s. “ H ow p eo ple re sp ond u nder p re ssu re . I’m re ally work in g o n m y re actio ns, tr y in g to re act to p eo ple in a n a u th en tic w ay a n d n ot with o ld h ab its .” The s h ow b eg in s: th re e te am s, e ach o f w hom p erfo rm s a H aro ld . A fte r e ach Haro ld , V ale rie o ffe rs a h ig h-s p eed an aly sis . “T oo clo se d o ff,” sh e w his p ers afte r a H aro ld t h at i n volv ed a h ead phone-w earin g w om an o n t h e s u bw ay s in gin g an A dele s o ng to o lo udly . “ S he d id n’t le av e ro om fo r a n ybody e ls e to c o nnect. She w as j u st m ak in g a j o ke, a n d t h ere w as n ow here f o r t h e o th ers t o g o.” “T oo str a ig ht,” V ale rie w his p ers a fte r th e se co nd H aro ld , w hic h in volv ed a co ffe e m ach in e th at use d its artif ic ia l in te llig en ce to se d uce its ow ner’s gir lf rie n d. S he e x pla in s t h at a g ood H aro ld d oesn ’t s ta y l o ck ed i n t h e s a m e s to ry – sp ace b ut a llo w s p la y ers t o m ak e l e ap s t o w ild ly d if fe re n t s c en ario s. “T hat w as a m azin g,” V ale rie w his p ers a fte r th e th ir d H aro ld , w hic h in volv ed a v am pir e , a f a m ily o n v acatio n, a n d a c o uple w ho g av e b ir th to a n a n im ate s e x to y. “ T hey re ally s u pporte d e ach o th er. D id y ou s e e h ow s o m e o f th em ju st le t th in gs p la y o ut w ith out g ettin g t o o i n volv ed ? I l o ve t h at.” When D el C lo se d ev elo ped th e H aro ld in th e 1 970s, h e w ro te d ow n th e fo llo w in g r u le s: 1. You a re a ll s u pportin g a cto rs . 2. Alw ay s c h eck y our i m puls e s. 3. Nev er e n te r a s c en e u nle ss y ou a re n eed ed . 4. Sav e y our f e llo w a cto r, d on’t w orry a b out t h e p ie ce. 5. Your p rim e r e sp onsib ility i s t o s u pport. 6. Work a t t h e t o p o f y our b ra in s a t a ll t im es. 7. Nev er u ndere stim ate o r c o ndesc en d t o t h e a u die n ce. 8. No j o kes. 9. Tru st. T ru st y our f e llo w a cto rs t o s u pport y ou; t r u st t h em t o c o m e t h ro ugh if y ou l a y s o m eth in g h eav y o n t h em ; t r u st y ours e lf . 10. Avoid j u dgin g w hat i s g oin g d ow n e x cep t i n t e rm s o f w heth er i t n eed s help , w hat c an b est f o llo w , o r h ow y ou c an s u pport i t i m ag in ativ ely i f y our su pport i s c alle d f o r. 11. LIS T EN . Every ru le d ir e cts y ou e ith er to ta m p d ow n s e lf is h in stin cts th at m ig ht m ak e you th e c en te r o f a tte n tio n, o r to s e rv e y our fe llo w a cto rs ( su pport, s a ve, tr u st, lis te n ). T his i s w hy C lo se ’s r u le s a re h ard t o f o llo w , a n d a ls o w hy t h ey a re u se fu l in b uild in g c o opera tio n. A H aro ld p la ces y ou in f ro nt o f a n a u die n ce, th en a sk s you to d is o bey e v ery n atu ra l in stin ct in y our b ra in a n d in ste ad to g iv e y ours e lf se lf le ssly t o t h e g ro up. I n s h ort, i t’ s a c o m ed y v ers io n o f L og P T . “Y ou h av e to le t g o o f th e n eed to b e f u nny, to b e th e c en te r o f th in gs,” s a y s Nate D ern , f o rm er a rtis tic d ir e cto r o f U CB. “ Y ou h av e t o b e a b le t o b e n ak ed , t o be o ut o f th in gs to s a y , s o th at p eo ple c an f in d th in gs to geth er. P eo ple s a y th eir min ds s h ould b e b la n k, b ut t h at’ s n ot q uite i t. T hey s h ould b e o pen .” UCB is a ls o u niq ue in th at it a p pro ach es H aro ld s a s if th ey w ere a s p ort. T his men ta lity is re fle cte d in th e te rm in olo gy. T here are co ach es, not dir e cto rs ; pra ctic es, n ot re h ears a ls ; a n d e ach H aro ld is fo llo w ed b y a rig oro us fe ed back se ssio n m uch lik e an A AR o r a B ra in T ru st m eetin g. “S om e is p ositiv e, b ut mostly it’ s c ritiq ue-b ase d ,” D ern s a y s. “ T hin gs lik e ‘Y ou d id n’t lis te n to y our sc en e p artn er’s id ea.’ O r ‘Y ou ste am ro lle re d y our p artn er a n d d id n’t le t th em co ntr ib ute .’ It’ s p re tty in te n se . A s a p erfo rm er, it’ s to ugh, b ecau se y ou a lr e ad y know y ou h ad a b ad s h ow , a n d th en y our c o ach w ill te ll y ou a ll th e th in gs th at were b ad .” “In e v ery o th er f o rm o f im pro v, y ou c an g et b y o n c h arm ,” s a y s K ev in H in es, th e acad em ic su perv is o r o f U CB N ew Y ork . “N ot in th e H aro ld . It’ s to ta lly unfo rg iv in g. W hic h is w hy th e p eo ple w ho s u cceed h ere te n d to b e e x tr e m ely hard w ork ers .” In o th er w ord s, th e H aro ld is a g ro up b ra in w ork out in w hic h y ou e x perie n ce, over a n d o ver, t h e p ure , p ain fu l i n te rs e ctio n o f v uln era b ility a n d i n te rc o nnectio n. Seen th is w ay , U CB’s b rillia n ce o n s ta g e a n d s c re en is n ot a n a ccid en t. I t is th e pro duct o f th ousa n ds o f m ic ro ev en ts , th ousa n ds o f s m all in te rp ers o nal le ap s th at were m ad e a n d s u pporte d . T hese g ro ups a re c o hesiv e n ot b ecau se i t’ s n atu ra l b ut becau se th ey ’v e b uilt, p ie ce b y p ie ce, th e s h are d m en ta l m usc le s to c o nnect a n d co opera te . “T hey T hin k w it h O ne B ra in ” Aro und 2 000, th e w orld ’s m ost e x clu siv e je w elr y s to re s b eg an to b e ta rg ete d b y a n ew ty pe o f ro bber. T hese ro bbers o pera te d in b ro ad d ay lig ht, in th e to nie st sh oppin g d is tr ic ts , in f u ll v ie w o f s e cu rity c am era s. T he m eth od w as u su ally th e sa m e: T hey e n te re d th e s to re s d re sse d a s w ealth y s h oppers , th en u se d h am mers to s m ash th e je w elr y c ase s, ta k in g o nly th e m ost v alu ab le g em s. T he ro bberie s were w ell p la n ned a n d w ell e x ecu te d — most to ok f e w er th an f o rty -fiv e s e co nds. Though th e ro bbers w ere o ccasio nally ro ugh w ith g uard s a n d c u sto m ers , th ey were a v ers e t o g unpla y a n d c re ativ e i n t h eir e sc ap es. I n L ondon, t h ey d ep arte d i n a ch au ffe u re d Ben tle y ; in Tokyo, th ey use d bic y cle s. O ne crim in olo gis t desc rib ed th eir w ork a s “ artis tr y .” T he ro bbers w ere y oung, ru m ore d to c o m e fro m S erb ia a n d M onte n eg ro , p arts o f w ar-to rn f o rm er Y ugosla v ia . P olic e c alle d th em t h e P in k P an th ers . *3 • Paris 2 001: A g ro up o f P an th ers p osin g a s w ork m en u se d b lo w to rc h es t o melt t h e s e cu rity c o atin g o ff t h e w in dow s a t t h e P aris -B ouch ero n f la g sh ip sto re , t h en s m ash ed t h e w in dow s a n d m ad e o ff w ith j e w els w orth $ 1.5 millio n. • Tokyo 2 005: A g ro up o f P an th ers p osin g a s w ealth y c u sto m ers u se d p ep per sp ra y t o d is a b le s e cu rity g uard s a n d l e ft w ith j e w els w orth $ 35 m illio n. • St. T ro pez 2 005: P an th ers d re sse d i n s u nhats a n d f lo w ere d s h ir ts b ro ke i n to a w ate rfro nt s to re , t o ok $ 3 m illio n w orth o f g em s, a n d d ep arte d b y sp eed boat. • Dubai 2 007: F our P an th ers d ro ve t w o r e n te d A udis i n to t h e e x clu siv e W afi sh oppin g m all a n d u se d t h e c ars a s b atte rin g r a m s t o s m ash t h ro ugh t h e doorw ay o f t h e G ra ff j e w elr y s to re . ( T hey h ad d is a b le d t h e c ars ’ a ir b ag s s o th ey d id n’t a ctiv ate .) T hey l e ft w ith j e w els w orth $ 3.4 m illio n. • London 2 007: F our m ale P an th ers d re sse d a s m id dle -a g ed w om en , co m ple te w ith w ig s a n d e x pen siv e d re sse s, r o bbed a H arry W in sto n s to re an d l e ft w ith $ 105 m illio n i n e m era ld s, r u bie s, a n d d ia m onds t h e s iz e o f je lly b ean s. When y ou v ie w se cu rity c am era fo ota g e o f th e ro bberie s, th e c lip s fo rm a sin gle , se am le ss lo op. T he P an th ers m ove th ro ugh th e sto re s lik e w ate r; th eir actio ns a re c o ord in ate d , c alm , a n d f o cu se d . T hey d on’t lo ok a t e ach o th er; th ey know w here to g o a n d w hat to d o. T hey s w in g h am mers a t th e c ase s w ith c alm pre cis io n, sw eep aw ay b ro ken g la ss an d ex tr a ct th e d ia m onds w ith p ra ctic ed effic ie n cy , t h en d ep art l ik e s h ad ow s. Auth oritie s w ere als o im pre sse d b y so m eth in g els e : In a lin e o f w ork n ot know n fo r lo yalty , th e P an th ers se em ed to h av e a g en uin e a tta ch m en t to o ne an oth er. O n ra re o ccasio ns w hen th ey w ere a p pre h en ded , th ey w ere im mune to polic e a tte m pts to g et th em to tu rn s ta te ’s e v id en ce. In 2 005, a P an th er n am ed Dra g an M ik ic e sc ap ed f ro m a F re n ch p ris o n w hen a g ro up o f m en — pre su m ab ly fe llo w P an th ers — use d la d ders , rif le s, a n d w ir e c u tte rs to b re ak in to th e p ris o n an d f re e h im . A s o ne p ro se cu to r s a id , “ T hese g uys d on’t c are a b out b ein g p ut in ja il. T hey k now th ey a re g oin g to e sc ap e.” A s a n oth er o bse rv er p ut it, “ T hey th in k w ith o ne b ra in .” As th e P an th ers ’ n oto rie ty in cre ase d , p eo ple w ondere d w ho th ey w ere a n d how th ey w ere o rg an iz ed . T he m ost g en era lly accep te d th eo ry w as th at th ey co nsis te d o f a g ro up o f fo rm er s o ld ie rs w ho’d s e rv ed in th e Y ugosla v ia n w ars . Som e b elie v ed th e P an th ers to b e f o rm er m em bers o f a p ara m ilita ry u nit c alle d Ark an ’s Tig ers , an in fa m ous gro up w ho w ork ed fo r str o ngm an Slo bodan Milo se v ic . O th ers b elie v ed th em to b e fo rm er m em bers o f th e JS O , S erb ia n sp ecia l f o rc es. Where v er th ey c am e fro m , th ere s e em ed n o q uestio n th at th ey w ere s o ld ie rs co m man ded an d co ntr o lle d by so m e cen tr a l fig ure . A s G eo rg e P ap asif a k is , dep uty of th e G re ek Pro perty C rim es U nit, to ld a re p orte r, “S om eo ne is defin ite ly m ovin g th e s tr in gs o n th e g ro und in S erb ia , a n d s o m eo ne is in c h arg e of in itia tin g a n d e d ucatin g th e y ounger m em bers .” I t’ s th rillin g, c in em atic s tu ff: a s e cre t g lo bal o rg an iz atio n o f e x -c o m man dos-tu rn ed -s u perc rim in als , s u m moned to th eir m is sio ns b y a s h ad ow y le ad er. T his n arra tiv e m ak es s e n se b ecau se w e te n d to pre su m e th at su ch fa u ltle ss co ord in atio n re q uir e s sp ecia l tr a in in g, pow erfu l l e ad ers h ip , a n d c en tr a liz ed o rg an iz atio n. It is a p erfe ctly g ood th eo ry , b ut it h as o ne p ro ble m : I t is w ro ng. I n th e la tte r part o f th e d ecad e, th e in vestig ativ e e ffo rts o f p olic e a n d jo urn alis ts g ra d ually re v eale d th e su rp ris in g tr u th . The Pan th ers w ere a se lf -a sse m blin g, se lf – govern in g, fre e-ra n ge m ix o f m id dle -c la ss p eo ple , fo rm er a th le te s, a n d sm all- tim e c rim in als . O ne h ad b een a m em ber o f S erb ia ’s n atio nal y outh b ask etb all te am . A noth er h ad atte n ded la w sc h ool. W hat th ey h ad in co m mon w as th e ex perie n ce of liv in g th ro ugh a hellis h w ar, an in stin ct fo r actio n, str o ng frie n dsh ip s, a n d t h e r e aliz atio n t h at t h ey h ad n oth in g t o l o se . “M ost o f th em g re w u p to geth er in th re e p artic u la r to w ns, a s frie n ds,” s a y s dir e cto r H av an a M ark in g, w ho h elp ed u nco ver th e sto ry in h er d ocu m en ta ry Sm ash & G ra b . “ T he e x perie n ce o f g oin g th ro ugh th e c o m munis t re g im e a n d th en t h e f re e-fo r-a ll n ig htm are o f t h e w ar t h at f o llo w ed , t h at r e ally b onded t h em . They w ere m ostly s m uggle rs a t th e b eg in nin g, to s u rv iv e. T hey w ork ed to geth er in t h ose e n vir o nm en ts , a n d i t w asn ’t f o r m oney , i t w as f o r s u rv iv al. T hey l e arn ed how to fa k e d ocu m en ts a n d c ro ss b ord ers , a s w ell a s o th er sk ills . T hey w ere attr a cte d to a d re n alin e a n d a ctio n. Y ou h av e to u nders ta n d th at c rim e, in th e Balk an s, w as a n orm al lif e . If w hat h ap pen ed in th e B alk an s h ad n’t h ap pen ed , th ese p eo ple p ro bab ly w ould h av e b een e n tr e p re n eu rs , l a w yers , a n d j o urn alis ts .” Each te am w as b uilt a ro und a s e t o f w ell- d efin ed r o le s. T here w as a za vo dnik , a “ se d ucer” w ho s c o uts th e lo catio n ( u su ally a w om an ); a magare , o r m usc le f o r gettin g th e je w els ; a ja ta k, w ho a rra n ged lo gis tic s. W hile th ere w ere le ad ers o n each t e am , t h ey d id n ot i s su e o rd ers . I n ste ad , t h ey o pera te d a cco rd in g t o a s im ple ru le t h at o ne P an th er e x pla in ed t o M ark in g: “ W e a ll d ep en d o n e ach o th er.” This in te rd ep en den ce b eg an w ith th e w ay th e P an th ers p re p are d fo r each ro bbery . E ach te am m em ber ( th ere w ere n ev er m ore th an f iv e o r s ix o n a te am ) moved to th e c ity a n d g ath ere d in fo rm atio n o n th e ta rg et s to re . T hey liv ed a n d work ed t o geth er f o r w eek s o f i n te n siv e p la n nin g. T hey s c o ute d t h e s to re , t r a ck ed th e c o m in gs a n d g oin gs o f th e e m plo yees, a n d s k etc h ed m ap s o f th e la y out to ta rg et th e m ost v alu ab le g em s. W hat’ s m ore , e ach P an th er s h are d th e c o st o f th e pla n nin g ( w hic h w as n ot in sig nif ic an t: th e a d van ce c o sts f o r th e T okyo r o bbery were $ 100,0 00). T hey d id n ot re ly o n a n y o uts id e s tr u ctu re o r s a fe ty n et. T hey were t h e s tr u ctu re , a n d i f a n y o f t h em f a ile d , t h e g ro up w ould f a il. In o th er w ord s, t h e P an th ers w ere a l ittle b it l ik e c o m ed ia n s d oin g a H aro ld , o r SE A Ls d oin g L og P T — sm all te am s so lv in g p ro ble m s in a co nsta n t sta te o f vuln era b ility an d in te rc o nnectio n. A s o ne P an th er n am ed L ela to ld M ark in g, “M y o ne m is ta k e w ould b e th eir fa ll. If I m ak e a n e rro r so m ew here , th ey a re doom ed .” For h er film , M ark in g in te rv ie w ed a m an a n d w om an w ho w ere fo rm erly o n th e s a m e P an th er te am b ut h ad n’t s e en e ach o th er in s o m e y ears . S he w atc h ed how t h ey i n te ra cte d . “ T hey h ad n’t s e en e ach o th er f o r a l o ng t im e, a n d t h ey w ere re ally h ap py to se e e ach o th er,” sh e sa y s. “ T hey h ad a p ro per frie n dsh ip a n d se em ed to b e g en uin ely c lo se . Y ou k now h ow y ou c an s e n se w hen tw o p eo ple are c o m ple te ly r e la x ed i n e ach o th er’s c o m pan y? Y ou c o uld s e n se i t w ith t h em .” *1 Not h is r e al n am e. *2 Here i s a p artia l l is t o f U CB a lu m ni: S co tt A dsit, A ziz A nsa ri, H . J o n B en ja m in , M att B esse r, K ay Can non, R ob C ord dry , E liz a C oupe, A ndre w D aly , A bby E llio tt, M ary E liz ab eth E llis , S ue G allo w ay , J o n Gla se r, I la n a G la zer, D onald G lo ver, E d H elm s, R ob H ueb el, A bbi J a co bso n, J a k e J o hnso n, E llie Kem per, N ic k K ro ll, J o hn L utz , J a so n M an tz o ukas, J a ck M cB ra y er, A dam M cK ay , K ate M cK in non, Bobby M oynih an , A ubre y P la za, A m y P oeh le r, J u ne D ia n e R ap hael, R ob R ig gle , I a n R oberts , H ora tio San z, P au l S ch eer, B en S ch w artz , J e n ny S la te , J e ssic a S t. C la ir , M att W als h , T ra cey W ig fie ld , J e ssic a Willia m s, C ase y W ils o n, Z ach W oods, a n d S ash eer Z am ata . *3 The n am e o rig in ate s f ro m a 2 003 L ondon r o bbery w here p olic e d is c o vere d s to le n d ia m onds h id den i n a ja r o f f a ce c re am , a t a ctic m ad e f a m ous i n t h e 1 975 f ilm The R etu rn o f t h e P in k P anth er. D ave C ooper’s R ule s I f y ou w ere to se ek o ut th e h ig hest- p erfo rm in g te am s o n th e p la n et, a t so m e p oin t y ou w ould fin d y ours e lf in D am N eck , V ir g in ia , h om e b ase fo r D ra p er K au ffm an ’s d esc en dan ts : th e th re e h undre d N av y S E A Ls w ho m ak e u p T eam S ix . A nd if y ou w ere to a sk a v arie ty o f c u rre n t a n d r e tir e d T eam S ix o pera to rs w hic h l e ad ers t h ey a d m ir e m ost, y ou w ould h ear t h e s a m e h an dfu l o f n am es o ver a n d o ver. B ut t h e n am e y ou w ould h ear m ost o fte n i s D av e C ooper. This is a su rp ris in g ch oic e, becau se D av e C ooper does not posse ss an y o bvio us ta le n ts th at d is tin guis h h im fro m th e re st o f T eam S ix . C ooper, w ho r e tir e d in 2 012, is n eith er th e s m arte st n or th e s tr o ngest te am m em ber, n or th e b est m ark sm an . H e is not th e best sw im mer nor th e best at clo se quarte rs c o m bat. B ut h e h ap pen s t o b e t h e b est a t a s k ill t h at i s a t o nce h ard t o d efin e a n d i m men se ly v alu ab le . H e’s t h e b est a t c re atin g g re at t e am s. “C oop is a v ery in te llig en t g uy w ho s ta y ed in th e tr e n ch es fo r a lo ng tim e,” s a y s fo rm er T eam S ix o pera to r C hris to pher B ald w in . “ H e w asn ’t o ne o f th ose p eo ple w ho m oved u p th e le ad ers h ip c h ain ju st to m ove u p. H e’s o ne o f u s. H e u nders to od t h e b ig ger p ic tu re , a n d y ou c o uld a lw ay s t a lk t o h im .” “T here are so m e h ig her-u ps w ho’v e h ad ru n-in s w ith h im , an d h e d oesn ’t a lw ay s f o llo w th e r u le s,” s a y s a n oth er o pera to r. “ B ut if y ou’re o n h is te am , y ou c an s e e w hy h e’s e ffe ctiv e.” Anoth er o pera to r p uts i t m ore s u ccin ctly : “ C ooper i s t h e d ude.” They te ll m e h ow C ooper w ork ed in B osn ia , S om alia , I ra q , a n d A fg han is ta n , a lw ay s in p la ces th at w ere “ sp orty ,” to u se th e S E A L te rm . T hey te ll m e h ow well C ooper’s te am s w ork ed to geth er, an d how ofte n th ey su cceed ed w hen th in gs w en t to h ell— esp ecia lly w hen th ey w en t to h ell. T he m ore th ey ta lk , th e more C ooper e x pan ds in m y im ag in atio n to b eco m e a la rg er-th an -lif e fig ure , a co m bin atio n o f V in ce L om bard i a n d J a so n B ourn e. Then a t a r e sta u ra n t i n V ir g in ia B each , w e m eet f o r l u nch . Cooper tu rn s o ut to b e a m ed iu m -s iz e g uy in a b each s h ir t, s h orts , a n d flip – flo ps w ho in m ost a sp ects r e se m ble s a s u burb an d ad . A s y ou m ig ht e x pect, h e is ex tr e m ely fit. A s y ou m ig ht n ot e x pect, h e is c h atty a n d w arm , w ith e y eb ro w s th at s te ep le to geth er in c o ncern w hen h e lis te n s. L ik e m ost S E A L o pera to rs , h e carrie s him se lf w ith his elb ow s slig htly aw ay fro m his body, ra d ia tin g aw are n ess, s c an nin g t h e r o om . C ontr o llin g t h e s p ace, t h is i s c alle d . He p ic k s a n o uts id e ta b le , s o w e c an s e e th e c ro w d. H e c h ats w ith th e w aite r, lis te n in g to th e s p ecia ls w ith w arm in te n sity . T hen th e e y eb ro w s s te ep le . “ S o, what d o y ou w an t t o k now ?” h e a sk s. Cooper’s b ack sto ry , lik e th at o f m ost T eam S ix g uys, is id io sy ncra tic . H e w as ra is e d in sm all- to w n P en nsy lv an ia an d g re w u p w an tin g to b e a d octo r. H e majo re d in m ole cu la r b io lo gy a t J u nia ta C olle g e, a tin y lib era l a rts s c h ool th at allo w ed m ilita ry re cru ite rs o n cam pus ju st o ne d ay a y ear. H e h eard o f th e SE A Ls fro m a h is to ry te ach er a n d c o uld still re cite th e lin e th at h ooked h im : “S E A Ls a re h ig hly in te llig en t, c o pio us re ad ers .” H e w as fa sc in ate d , a n d a fte r gra d uatio n, h e m ad e h is w ay to tr a in in g. H e s u rv iv ed H ell W eek , p asse d D ra p er Kau ffm an ’s se le ctio n p ro cess, an d m ad e it th ro ugh an oth er se le ctio n to jo in Team S ix i n 1 993. There a re m an y s to rie s C ooper c an te ll— an d m an y h e c an not— ab out lif e a s a Team S ix o pera to r. B ut w hen y ou a sk h im a b out b uild in g te am s, h e te lls o nly one s to ry . It h ap pen ed in A fg han is ta n o n N ew Y ear’s E ve 2 001, o n a d eso la te ro ad b etw een B ag ra m a n d J a la la b ad . C ooper w as o n th at ro ad b ecau se h e h ad re ceiv ed an ord er to acco m pan y his co m man der on a fo ur-p ers o n ro ute – re co nnais sa n ce m is sio n i n w hic h t h ey w ould d riv e f ro m B ag ra m t o J a la la b ad a n d back i n a s in gle d ay . The ro ad w as a n ig htm are : a n e x plo siv e-in fe ste d , o fte n im passa b le 1 10-m ile str e tc h p opula te d b y b an dits a n d in su rg en ts . B ut C ooper’s c o m man der in sis te d th ey g o, ex udin g co nfid en ce as h e o utlin ed th e p la n : T hey w ould rid e in an arm ore d S uburb an w ith sp ecia lly re in fo rc ed tir e s. T hey w ould be fa st an d ste alth y. E very th in g w ould b e fin e. C ooper h eld h is d oubts , fo llo w ed ra n k, a n d wen t a lo ng. Fro m th e fir s t m ile s o ut o f B ag ra m , th in gs s ta rte d to g o s id ew ay s. T he ro ad tu rn ed o ut to b e w ors e th an e x pecte d — in p la ces m ore lik e a h ik in g tr a il th an a hig hw ay . T he g ro und c le ara n ce o n t h e a rm ore d S uburb an w as o nly a f e w i n ch es, so t h ey w ere s lo w ed t o a c ra w l m uch o f t h e t im e. B y n ig htf a ll, w hen t h ey f in ally re ach ed J a la la b ad , C ooper f ig ure d t h ey w ould s ta y a n d w ait f o r d ay lig ht. I n ste ad , th e c o m man der a n nounced th ey w ould b e tu rn in g a ro und a n d d riv in g b ack to Bag ra m t h at n ig ht s o t h ey c o uld c o m ple te t h e m is sio n a s p la n ned . Cooper o bje cte d — th at w as a b ad id ea, h e sa id . T he d is c u ssio n g ot h eate d ; Cooper a n d h is c o m man der y elle d b ack a n d f o rth b efo re th e c o m man der f in ally in voked h is ra n k. C ooper s u bm itte d . W ith a s in kin g fe elin g, h e c lim bed in th e Suburb an , a n d t h e g ro up s e t o ff i n to t h e n ig ht. The a m bush h ap pen ed a n h our la te r. A c o nvoy o f tr u ck s a n d je ep s ru m ble d out o f th e b la ck ness an d su rro unded th e S uburb an . C ooper’s d riv er tr ie d to esc ap e, b ut t h e r e in fo rc ed t ir e s b le w o ut. T hey w ere d riv in g o n r im s, i n t h e d ark , with g unfir e a rriv in g f ro m a ll d ir e ctio ns. O ne S E A L o pera to r w as b le ed in g, s h ot th ro ugh t h e l e g . I t w as, a s C ooper s a y s, a n u nm itig ate d s h it s h ow . The S E A Ls h ad n o ch oic e b ut to su rre n der, clim bin g o ut w ith th eir arm s ra is e d , s u re th ey w ere a b out to b e k ille d . “ F or s o m e r e aso n, th ey d ecid ed n ot to sh oot u s,” C ooper s a y s. “ E ith er th ey w ere s c are d o f r e ta lia tio n, o r th ey s a w th at we w ere n ’t m uch o f a th re at.” T he in su rg en ts ro are d o ff in to th e d ark ness, carry in g th e S E A Ls’ w eap ons. C ooper a n d h is te am w ere a b le to c o nta ct D elta an d B ritis h S pecia l F orc es u nits , w hic h f le w in to r e sc u e th em a f e w h ours la te r. He r e tu rn ed t o B ag ra m w ith a s e co nd c h an ce a n d a n ew w orld vie w . “T hat n ig ht p ut m e o n a d if fe re n t p ath ,” C ooper s a y s. “ F ro m th at m om en t o n, I re aliz ed th at I n eed ed to fig ure o ut w ay s to h elp th e g ro up fu nctio n m ore effe ctiv ely . T he p ro ble m h ere i s t h at, a s h um an s, w e h av e a n a u th ority b ia s t h at’ s in cre d ib ly s tr o ng a n d u nco nsc io us— if a s u perio r te lls y ou to d o s o m eth in g, b y God w e te n d to fo llo w it, e v en w hen it’ s w ro ng. H av in g o ne p ers o n te ll o th er peo ple w hat to d o is n ot a r e lia b le w ay to m ak e g ood d ecis io ns. S o h ow d o y ou cre ate c o nditio ns w here th at d oesn ’t h ap pen , w here y ou d ev elo p a h iv e m in d? How d o y ou d ev elo p w ay s to c h alle n ge e ach o th er, a sk th e r ig ht q uestio ns, a n d nev er d efe r to a u th ority ? W e’re tr y in g to c re ate le ad ers a m ong le ad ers . A nd y ou can ’t ju st te ll p eo ple to d o th at. Y ou h av e to c re ate th e c o nditio ns w here th ey sta rt t o d o i t.” Sta rtin g th at n ig ht in 2 001, C ooper s e t o ut to b uild th ose c o nditio ns fo r h is te am s. H is a p pro ach to n urtu rin g c o opera tio n c o uld b e d esc rib ed a s a n in su rg en t cam paig n ag ain st au th ority bia s. M ere ly cre atin g sp ace fo r co opera tio n, he re aliz ed , w asn ’t e n ough; h e h ad to g en era te a s e rie s o f u nm is ta k ab le s ig nals th at tip ped h is m en a w ay fro m th eir n atu ra l te n den cie s a n d to w ard in te rd ep en den ce an d co opera tio n. “H um an n atu re is co nsta n tly w ork in g ag ain st u s,” h e sa y s. “Y ou h av e t o g et a ro und t h ose b arrie rs , a n d t h ey n ev er g o a w ay .” He s ta rte d w ith s m all th in gs. A n ew te am m em ber w ho c alle d h im b y h is title was q uic k ly c o rre cte d : “ Y ou c an c all m e C oop, D av e, o r F uck fa ce, it’ s y our ch oic e.” W hen C ooper g av e h is o pin io n, h e w as c are fu l to a tta ch p hra se s th at pro vid ed a p la tf o rm f o r s o m eo ne t o q uestio n h im , l ik e “ N ow l e t’ s s e e i f s o m eo ne can p oke h ole s in th is ” o r “ T ell m e w hat’ s w ro ng w ith th is id ea.” H e ste ere d aw ay f ro m g iv in g o rd ers a n d in ste ad a sk ed a lo t o f q uestio ns. Anyb ody h ave a ny id ea s? Durin g m is sio ns, C ooper so ught o pportu nitie s to sp otlig ht th e n eed fo r h is men to s p eak u p, e sp ecia lly w ith n ew er te am m em bers . H e w as n ot s u btle . “ F or ex am ple , w hen y ou’re in a n u rb an e n vir o nm en t, w in dow s a re b ad ,” h e te lls m e. “Y ou s ta n d in fro nt o f o ne, a n d y ou c an g et s h ot b y a s n ip er a n d n ev er k now where it c am e f ro m . S o if y ou’re a n ew g uy a n d y ou s e e m e s ta n din g in f ro nt o f a w in dow in F allu ja h , w hat a re y ou g oin g to s a y ? A re y ou g oin g to te ll m e to move m y a ss, o r a re y ou g oin g t o s ta n d t h ere q uie tly a n d l e t m e g et s h ot? W hen I ask n ew g uys th at q uestio n, th ey sa y , ‘I’ll te ll y ou to m ove.’ S o I te ll th em , ‘W ell, th at’ s e x actly h ow y ou s h ould c o nduct y ours e lf a ll th e tim e a ro und h ere , with e v ery s in gle d ecis io n.’   ” Cooper beg an to dev elo p to ols . “T here ’re th in gs you can do,” he sa y s. “S pen din g tim e to geth er outs id e, han gin g out— th ose help . O ne of th e best th in gs I ’v e f o und t o im pro ve a te am ’s c o hesio n is t o s e n d t h em to d o s o m e h ard , hard tr a in in g. T here ’s s o m eth in g a b out h an gin g o ff a c lif f to geth er, a n d b ein g wet a n d c o ld a n d m is e ra b le t o geth er, t h at m ak es a t e am c o m e t o geth er.” One o f th e m ost u se fu l to ols w as th e A fte r-A ctio n R ev ie w , th e tr u th -te llin g se ssio n w e re fe re n ced in C hap te r 7. A ARs hap pen im med ia te ly afte r each mis sio n a n d c o nsis t o f a s h ort m eetin g in w hic h th e te am g ath ers to d is c u ss a n d re p la y k ey d ecis io ns. A ARs a re le d n ot b y c o m man ders b ut b y e n lis te d m en . There are n o ag en das, an d n o m in ute s are k ep t. T he g oal is to cre ate a fla t la n dsc ap e w ith out ra n k, w here p eo ple c an fig ure o ut w hat re ally h ap pen ed a n d ta lk a b out m is ta k es— esp ecia lly t h eir o w n. “It’ s got to be sa fe to ta lk ,” C ooper sa y s. “R an k sw itc h ed off, hum ility sw itc h ed o n. Y ou’re lo okin g f o r th at m om en t w here p eo ple c an s a y , ‘ I s c re w ed th at u p.’ I n f a ct, I ’d s a y t h ose m ig ht b e t h e m ost i m porta n t f o ur w ord s a n y l e ad er can s a y : I s c re w ed t h at u p .” Good A ARs f o llo w a te m pla te . “ Y ou h av e to d o it r ig ht a w ay ,” C ooper s a y s. “Y ou p ut d ow n y our g un, cir c le u p, an d sta rt ta lk in g. U su ally y ou ta k e th e mis sio n f ro m b eg in nin g to e n d, c h ro nolo gic ally . Y ou ta lk a b out e v ery d ecis io n, an d y ou t a lk a b out t h e p ro cess. Y ou h av e t o r e sis t t h e t e m pta tio n t o w ra p i t a ll u p in a b ow , a n d t r y t o d ig f o r t h e t r u th o f w hat h ap pen ed , s o p eo ple c an r e ally l e arn fro m i t. Y ou h av e t o a sk w hy, a n d t h en w hen t h ey r e sp ond, y ou a sk a n oth er w hy. Why d id y ou sh oot a t th at p artic u la r p oin t? W hat d id y ou se e? H ow d id y ou know ? W hat o th er o ptio ns w ere t h ere ? Y ou a sk a n d a sk a n d a sk .” The g oal o f a n A AR i s n ot t o e x cav ate t r u th f o r t r u th ’s s a k e, o r t o a ssig n c re d it an d b la m e, b ut ra th er to b uild a sh are d m en ta l m odel th at c an b e a p plie d to fu tu re m is sio ns. “ L ook, n obody c an s e e it a ll o r k now it a ll,” C ooper s a y s. “ B ut if y ou k eep g ettin g to geth er a n d d ig gin g o ut w hat h ap pen ed , th en a fte r a w hile ev ery body can se e w hat’ s re ally h ap pen in g, n ot ju st th eir sm all p ie ce o f it. Peo ple c an sh are e x perie n ces a n d m is ta k es. T hey c an se e h ow w hat th ey d o affe cts o th ers , a n d w e c an sta rt to c re ate a g ro up m in d w here e v ery body c an work t o geth er a n d p erfo rm t o t h e t e am ’s p ote n tia l.” Cooper u se s th e p hra se “ b ack bone o f h um ility ” to d esc rib e th e to ne o f a g ood AAR. I t’ s a u se fu l p hra se b ecau se it c ap tu re s th e p ara d oxic al n atu re o f th e ta sk : a re le n tle ss w illin gness to s e e th e tr u th a n d ta k e o w ners h ip . W ith a n A AR, a s with L og P T o r a H aro ld , g ro up m em bers h av e to co m bin e d is c ip lin e w ith open ness. A nd a s w ith a L og P T o r a H aro ld , i t’ s n ot e asy . B ut i t d oes p ay o ff. Afte r h is re v ela tio n o n th e ro ad to B ag ra m , C ooper sp en t th e n ex t d ecad e le ad in g te am s, m ostly in th e M id dle E ast. H e g ra d ually ro se to T eam S ix ’s hig hest e n lis te d ra n k o f c o m man d m aste r c h ie f, w hic h p la ced h im in c h arg e o f th e e n tir e g ro up’s tr a in in g. I n M arc h 2 011 h e a n d a n oth er T eam S ix le ad er w ere su m moned by Adm ir a l W illia m M cR av en , co m man der of Jo in t Specia l Opera tio ns C om man d, t o C IA h ead quarte rs i n M cL ean , V ir g in ia . McR av en g ot rig ht to th e p oin t: “ W e th in k w e’v e fo und O sa m a b in L ad en .” He th en o utlin ed th e p la n . T eam S ix o pera to rs w ould f ly in to P ak is ta n in s te alth helic o pte rs , f a st- ro pe o nto t h e c o m pound’s r o of, a n d k ill t h e A l Q aed a l e ad er. Cooper lis te n ed , h is a tte n tio n d ra w n to o ne e le m en t: th e ste alth h elic o pte rs . He k new th ey w ere a ttr a ctiv e to M cR av en b ecau se th ey w ere in vis ib le to ra d ar an d w ould th us a llo w th e te am to tr a v el u ndete cte d th ro ugh P ak is ta n i a ir s p ace. But C ooper a ls o k new t h ey w ere u nte ste d i n c o m bat, a n d t h at s p ecia l o ps h is to ry was l itte re d w ith d is a ste rs c au se d b y u sin g u nte ste d t o ols i n c o m bat. S o h e s p oke up. “W ith a ll d ue r e sp ect, s ir ,” C ooper s a id , “ I w ould n ot u se th ose h elic o pte rs o n th is m is sio n. I w ould pla n so m eth in g els e in para lle l. If w e can ’t go w ith so m eth in g e ls e , t h en I g o w ith t h e h elic o pte rs .” “W e’re n ot c h an gin g t h e p la n n ow ,” M cR av en s a id . Cooper d ecid ed to k eep p ush in g. H e w an te d to g et th is o n th e ta b le . “ S ir , I ’d be r e m is s i f I d id n’t t e ll y ou w hat I t h ought.” McR av en r a is e d h is v oic e. “ W e’re n ot c h an gin g t h e p la n n ow ,” h e s a id . “In th at m om en t, I w as p re tty s u re I w as g ettin g f ir e d ,” C ooper te lls m e la te r. “B ut I w asn ’t g oin g t o k eep m y m outh s h ut.” H e p ush ed a g ain . McR av en s h ut h im d ow n a g ain . T he d is c u ssio n w as o ver. Cooper w alk ed o ut o f th at ro om fa cin g a p ro ble m : H ow d o y ou fo llo w a n ord er t h at c arrie s w hat y ou c o nsid er to b e a n u naccep ta b ly h ig h r is k ? I n e sse n ce, he w as in p re cis e ly th e s a m e p ositio n h e’d b een in b ack o n th e r o ad to B ag ra m on N ew Y ear’s E ve 2 001. S hould h e f o llo w t h e o rd er o r d efy i t? Cooper c h ose a th ir d p ath . H e a ccep te d th e u se o f th e s te alth h elic o pte rs a n d als o s ta rte d p re p arin g in c ase th ey f a ile d . I n th e e n su in g w eek s, th e S E A Ls b uilt re p lic as o f B in L ad en ’s c o m pound in N orth C aro lin a, N ev ad a, a n d A fg han is ta n . In each pla ce, C ooper ra n do w ned -h elic o pte r sc en ario s over an d over. H e sim ula te d c ra sh es o uts id e th e c o m pound, in sid e th e c o m pound, o n th e ro of, in th e yard , hundre d s of yard s aw ay . E ach w as esse n tia lly th e sa m e: P artw ay th ro ugh th e o pera tio n, C ooper w ould s u rp ris e th e te am w ith th e o rd er “ Y ou’re goin g d ow n, n ow .” T he p ilo ts w ould a u to ro ta te t h e h elic o pte r t o th e g ro und, a n d th e t e am w ould t h en a tta ck t h e m ock c o m pound f ro m w here v er t h ey h ap pen ed t o be. “ T here w ere n ev er a n y r ig ht o r w ro ng a n sw ers ; t h ey h ad t o s e lf -o rg an iz e a n d deal w ith th e p ro ble m ,” C ooper s a id . “ T hen w e’d d o a n A AR, ta lk a b out it, a n d fig ure o ut w hat h ad h ap pen ed a n d w hat w e c o uld d o b ette r n ex t t im e.” The d ow ned -h elic o pte r d rills w ere n ot e asy . T hey d em an ded a h ig h le v el o f atte n tio n, c o opera tio n, a n d im pro vis a tio n. I n th e A ARs th at f o llo w ed e ach d rill, th e te am m em bers r e p eate d ly w en t o ver w hat w en t w ro ng, o w ned m is ta k es, a n d ta lk ed a b out h ow th ey m ig ht d o it b ette r. “ W e r a n s o m an y th at it b ecam e a jo ke am ong th e g uys,” C ooper s a y s. “ T hey w ere s a y in g, ‘H ey , C oop, c an w e ple a se ru n a n oth er d ow ned -h elic o pte r s c en ario ?’   ” On M ay 1, th e W hite H ouse se n t th e ord er to la u nch . T he tw o ste alth helic o pte rs lif te d o ff f ro m th e U .S . a ir b ase in J a la la b ad . A t th e b ase ’s c o m man d cen te r, C ooper, M cR av en , a n d o th er c o m man ders g ath ere d a ro und th e s c re en to watc h th e d ro ne v id eo fe ed . In th e W hite H ouse , P re sid en t B ara ck O bam a a n d his n atio nal s e cu rity t e am l e an ed i n , w atc h in g t h e s a m e i m ag es. The m is sio n sta rte d sm ooth ly . T hey m ad e it th ro ugh Pak is ta n i air s p ace undete cte d a n d a p pro ach ed B in L ad en ’s c o m pound. B ut a s th e fir s t h elic o pte r atte m pte d to la n d, th in gs w en t w ro ng. O ne h elic o pte r s k id ded a ro und in th e a ir as if it w ere on ic e, veerin g an d sp in nin g to w ard th e gro und. T he oth er helic o pte r, w hic h w as s u ppose d to la n d o n th e r o of o f th e m ain c o m pound, s a w th e p ro ble m s a n d v eere d o ff to la n d o uts id e. ( T he e x pla n atio n th at la te r e m erg ed was t h at t h e h ig h w alls o f t h e c o m pound c re ate d d ow ndra fts t h at d is ru pte d f lig ht. The re h ears a ls h ad a ll b een d one a t m ock up c o m pounds w ith c h ain -lin k fe n ce, not s o lid w alls .) T hen th in gs g ot w ors e . T he fir s t p ilo t, u nab le to k eep a ltitu de, cra sh -la n ded i n t h e c o urty ard , l o dgin g t h e t a il s e ctio n o n t h e w all a n d t ip pin g t h e helic o pte r o n its s id e, b ury in g its n ose in th e s o ft d ir t. I n th e c o m man d p ost, th e gen era ls sta re d w ord le ssly a t th e sc re en . F or th re e o r fo ur se co nds, th e ro om fille d w ith a n u nbeara b le s ile n ce. Then th ey s a w it: T eam S ix o pera to rs p ourin g o ut o f th e d ow ned h elic o pte r, ju st as th ey h ad in th e d rills , g oin g to w ork . T hey g ot m ovin g an d sta rte d work in g th e p ro ble m — pic k up b ask etb all a t its f in est. “ T hey d id n’t m is s a b eat,” Cooper s a y s. “ O nce th ey g ot o n th e g ro und, th ere w as z ero d oubt.” T hir ty -e ig ht min ute s la te r, it w as o ver, a n d th e e n tir e p la n et h ad a n o pportu nity to a p pre cia te th e te am ’s sk ill a n d b ra v ery . B ut in a ll th e c ele b ra tio n, it’ s e asy to m is s th e deep er sk ill, th e c h ain o f tr a in in g a n d A ARs th at la id th e fo undatio n fo r th at mom en t. Fro m a fa r, th e B in L ad en ra id lo oked lik e a d em onstr a tio n o f te am s tr e n gth , pow er, an d co ntr o l. B ut th at str e n gth w as b uilt o f a w illin gness to sp ot an d co nfro nt th e tr u th a n d to c o m e to geth er to a sk a s im ple q uestio n o ver a n d o ver: What’ s r e a lly g oin g o n h ere ? C ooper a n d h is t e am d id n ot h av e t o g o b ack a g ain an d a g ain to w ork o n d ow ned -h elic o pte r s c en ario s. B ut th ey s u cceed ed b ecau se th ey unders to od th at bein g vuln era b le to geth er is th e only w ay a te am can beco m e i n vuln era b le . “W hen w e ta lk a b out c o ura g e, w e th in k it’ s g oin g a g ain st a n e n em y w ith a mach in e g un,” C ooper s a y s. “ T he re al c o ura g e is s e ein g th e tr u th a n d s p eak in g th e tr u th to e ach o th er. P eo ple n ev er w an t to b e th e p ers o n w ho s a y s, ‘W ait a se co nd, w hat’ s r e ally g oin g o n h ere ?’ B ut i n sid e t h e s q uad ro n, t h at is t h e c u ltu re , an d t h at’ s w hy w e’re s u ccessfu l.” T he N yq uis t M eth od B ack in th e e arly p art o f th e la st c en tu ry , w ell b efo re S ilic o n V alle y , th e w orld ’s f o re m ost hub of in ven tio n an d in novatio n w as lo cate d in a se rie s of la rg e n ondesc rip t build in gs in su burb an N ew Je rs e y . It w as calle d B ell Lab s. O rig in ally fo rm ed in 1 925 to h elp b uild a n atio nal c o m munic atio ns n etw ork , B ell L ab s g re w in to th e sc ie n tif ic eq uiv ale n t o f R en ais sa n ce-e ra F lo re n ce: a w ells p rin g o f g ro up g en iu s t h at l a ste d u ntil t h e 1 970s. L ed b y C la u de S han non, a b rillia n t p oly m ath w ho lik ed to rid e th ro ugh th e h alls o n h is u nic y cle w hile j u gglin g, B ell L ab s an d its te am s of sc ie n tis ts in ven te d an d dev elo ped th e t r a n sis to r, d ata n etw ork in g, s o la r c ells , la se rs , c o m munic atio ns s a te llite s, b in ary c o m putin g, a n d c ellu la r c o m munic atio n— in s h ort, m ost o f th e to ols w e u se to l iv e m odern l if e . Mid w ay th ro ugh th at g old en a g e, s o m e B ell L ab s a d m in is tr a to rs g re w c u rio us a b out th e r e aso ns f o r th eir o w n r e m ark ab le s u ccess. T hey w ondere d w hic h B ell s c ie n tis ts h ad g en era te d th e m ost p ate n ts f o r th eir in ven tio ns, a n d w heth er th ose s c ie n tis ts h ad a n yth in g in c o m mon. T hey b eg an b y e x am in in g th e B ell p ate n t l ib ra ry , w here pate n ts w ere kep t in bin ders org an iz ed alp hab etic ally by th e s c ie n tis ts ’ l a st n am e. “M ost o f th e b in ders w ere ab out th e sa m e siz e,” re calls B ill K eefa u ver, a l a w yer w ho w ork ed in th e p ate n t o ffic e. “ B ut s o m e b in ders s to od o ut r ig ht a w ay b ecau se th ey w ere fa t— much fa tte r th an ev ery one els e ’s . T hose w ere th e s u perc re ativ e p eo ple w ho h ad file d d ozen s a n d d ozen s o f p ate n ts . T here w ere a b out t e n o f t h em .” The ad m in is tr a to rs stu die d th ose te n sc ie n tis ts , huntin g fo r th e co m mon th re ad . D id th e s u perc re ativ es s h are th e s a m e s p ecia lty ? T he s a m e e d ucatio nal back gro und? T he sa m e fa m ily b ack gro und? A fte r co nsid erin g an d d is c ard in g dozen s o f p ossib le tie s, th ey d is c o vere d a c o nnectio n— an d it d id n’t h av e to d o with w ho th e s u perc re ativ es w ere . I t h ad to d o w ith a h ab it th at th ey s h are d : th e hab it o f re g ula rly e atin g lu nch in th e B ell L ab s c afe te ria w ith a q uie t S w ed is h en gin eer n am ed H arry N yquis t. This re su lt c am e a s a s u rp ris e , to s a y th e le ast. N ot b ecau se N yquis t w asn ’t well k now n— he w as, h av in g p io neere d im porta n t a d van ces in te le g ra p hy a n d fe ed back am plif ic atio n. B ut in a p la ce fa m ous fo r its d ynam ic an d eccen tr ic le ad ers , N yquis t w as th e opposite : a m ild , gen tly sm ilin g L uth era n know n mostly f o r h is tr a n quil r e lia b ility . R ais e d o n a S w ed is h f a rm , h e a p pro ach ed h is work w ith old -w orld dis c ip lin e. H e aw oke at pre cis e ly 6:4 5 each m orn in g, dep arte d f o r th e o ffic e a t p re cis e ly 7 :3 0, a n d w as a lw ay s h om e f o r f a m ily d in ner at 6 :1 5. H is m ost id io sy ncra tic h ab it w as o ccasio nally ta k in g th e f e rry in ste ad o f th e su bw ay on his co m mute hom e. (H e en jo yed th e fre sh air .) H e w as so ord in ary a s to b e n early in vis ib le . I n o th er w ord s, th e m ost im porta n t p ers o n in one o f th e m ost c re ativ e p la ces in h is to ry tu rn ed o ut to b e th e p ers o n a lm ost ev ery one w ould o verlo ok. W hic h i s w hy i t’ s i m porta n t t o l o ok a b it m ore c lo se ly at h is s k ill s e t. Nyquis t by all acco unts posse sse d tw o im porta n t qualitie s. T he fir s t w as warm th . H e h ad a k nack fo r m ak in g p eo ple fe el c are d fo r; e v ery c o nte m pora ry desc rip tio n pain ts him as “fa th erly .” The se co nd quality w as a re le n tle ss cu rio sity . In a la n dsc ap e m ad e u p o f d iv ers e sc ie n tif ic d om ain s, h e c o m bin ed bre ad th a n d d ep th o f k now le d ge w ith a d esir e t o s e ek c o nnectio ns. “ N yquis t w as fu ll o f id eas, fu ll o f q uestio ns,” B ell L ab s e n gin eer C hap in C utle r re calls . “ H e dre w p eo ple o ut, g ot t h em t h in kin g.” “N yquis t w as g ood a t a p artic u la r k in d o f a ctiv ity th at B ell r e ally e n co ura g ed in th ose d ay s,” K eefa u ver s a y s. “ P eo ple in a ll k in ds o f d is c ip lin es, o n a ll k in ds of pro je cts , ta lk in g ab out th eir pro je ct w ith so m eo ne w ho’s w ork in g on so m eth in g en tir e ly d if fe re n t, to p ut a n ew lig ht o n th in gs. P eo ple lik e H arry Nyquis t c o uld c ap tu re w hat s o m eo ne w as d oin g, th ro w s o m e n ew id eas a t th em , an d a sk , ‘ W hy d on’t y ou t r y t h at? ’   ” When I v is ite d g ro ups f o r t h is b ook, I m et a l o t o f p eo ple w ho p osse sse d t r a its of w arm th a n d c u rio sity — so m an y, in fa ct, th at I b eg an to th in k o f th em a s Nyquis ts . T hey w ere p olite , r e se rv ed , a n d s k ille d lis te n ers . T hey r a d ia te d a s a fe , nurtu rin g v ib e. T hey p osse sse d d eep k now le d ge t h at s p an ned d om ain s a n d h ad a knack fo r a sk in g q uestio ns th at ig nite d m otiv atio n a n d id eas. (T he b est w ay to fin d th e N yquis t is u su ally to a sk p eo ple : If I c o uld g et a s e n se o f th e w ay y o ur cu ltu re w ork s b y m eetin g ju st o ne p erso n, w ho w ould th at p erso n b e? ) If w e th in k o f s u ccessfu l c u ltu re s a s e n gin es o f h um an c o opera tio n, th en th e N yquis ts are t h e s p ark p lu gs. The p ers o n I m et w ho b est e m bodie d t h is p ro cess w as n am ed R osh i G iv ech i. Rosh i G iv ech i w ork s at th e N ew Y ork offic e of ID EO , th e in te rn atio nal desig n f ir m h ead quarte re d in P alo A lto , C alif o rn ia . I D EO ’s p la ce in th e m odern world is a little lik e th at o f B ell L ab s. It h as d esig ned , a m ong o th er th in gs, th e orig in al A pple co m pute r m ouse , in su lin pen s fo r dia b etic s, an d th e sta n dup to oth paste tu be. It h as w on m ore d esig n aw ard s th an an y o th er co m pan y in his to ry . T he g ro up c o nsis ts o f six h undre d p eo ple w ho a re d iv id ed in to sm all te am s a n d t a sk ed w ith m eetin g c h alle n ges t h at r a n ge f ro m d esig nin g g lo bal p la n s fo r d is a ste r r e sp onse to b uild in g a s m artp hone-c h arg in g h an dbag a n d e v ery th in g in b etw een . Offic ia lly , G iv ech i is a d esig ner. U noffic ia lly , h er ro le is to s e rv e a s ro vin g cata ly st, in volv ed in a n um ber o f p ro je cts , h elp in g th e te am s n av ig ate th e d esig n pro cess. “ W hen te am s a re stu ck , o r if th ere ’s a to ugh d ynam ic , R osh i is lik e mag ic ,” sa y s D uan e B ra y , an ID EO partn er. “S he’s in cre d ib ly sk ille d at unlo ck in g te am s, a sk in g q uestio ns th at c o nnect p eo ple a n d o pen p ossib ilitie s. The tr u th is , w e d on’t q uite u nders ta n d h ow s h e d oes it, e x actly . W e ju st k now th at i t w ork s r e ally w ell.” Giv ech i, a sm all w om an in her fo rtie s, w ears flo w in g sk ir ts w ith la rg e pock ets . S he h as d ark , c u rly h air a n d q uic k , d ark e y es w ith s m ile -c rin kle s a t th e co rn ers . O n g re etin g, sh e m ak es n o a tte m pt to c h arm — no jo kes, n o e x te n ded sm all ta lk . S he p ro je cts n one o f th e e n erg etic th eatr ic ality y ou e n co unte r w ith man y p eo ple in c re ativ e w ork . In ste ad , s h e ra d ia te s a c o nte n te d s tilln ess, a s if you’v e m et m an y t im es b efo re . “S ocia lly , I ’m n ot th e c h attie st p ers o n,” G iv ech i s a y s. “ I lo ve s to rie s, b ut I ’m not th e p ers o n in th e m id dle o f th e r o om te llin g th e s to ry . I ’m th e p ers o n o n th e sid e lis te n in g a n d a sk in g q uestio ns. T hey ’re u su ally q uestio ns th at m ig ht s e em obvio us o r s im ple o r u nnecessa ry . B ut I lo ve a sk in g th em b ecau se I ’m tr y in g to unders ta n d w hat’ s r e ally g oin g o n.” Giv ech i’ s in te ra ctio ns w ith h er te am s ta k e p la ce la rg ely in w hat ID EO c alls Flig hts , re g ula r a ll- te am m eetin gs th at o ccu r a t th e s ta rt, m id dle , a n d fin is h o f ev ery p ro je ct. (T hin k o f th em a s ID EO ’s v ers io n o f th e B ra in T ru st o r A AR.) Giv ech i ap pro ach es each F lig ht fro m th e o uts id e in . S he d oes h er re se arc h , mostly th ro ugh c o nvers a tio ns, to le arn th e is su es th e te am h as b een w re stlin g with , b oth fro m a d esig n p ers p ectiv e (w hat a re th e b arrie rs ? ) a n d fro m a te am – dynam ic s p ers p ectiv e ( w here is th e f ric tio n?). T hen w ith th at la n dsc ap e in m in d, sh e g ath ers th e g ro up a n d a sk s q uestio ns d esig ned to u nearth te n sio ns a n d h elp th e g ro up g ain c la rity a b out th em se lv es a n d th e p ro je ct. T he w ord s h e u se s fo r th is p ro cess i s su rfa cin g . *1 “I lik e th e w ord co nnect ,” G iv ech i s a y s. “ F or m e, e v ery c o nvers a tio n is th e sa m e, b ecau se it’ s ab out h elp in g p eo ple w alk aw ay w ith a g re ate r se n se o f aw are n ess, e x cite m en t, a n d m otiv atio n to m ak e a n im pact. B ecau se in div id uals are re ally d if fe re n t. S o y ou h av e to fin d d if fe re n t w ay s to m ak e it c o m fo rta b le an d e n gag in g fo r p eo ple to sh are w hat th ey ’re re ally th in kin g a b out. It’ s n ot ab out d ecis iv en ess— it’ s a b out d is c o very . F or m e, th at h as to d o w ith a sk in g th e rig ht q uestio ns t h e r ig ht w ay .” *2 When y ou ta lk to G iv ech i’ s c o lle ag ues, th ey p oin t o ut a p ara d ox: S he is a t once so ft an d hard , em path etic but als o pers is te n t. “T here ’s an underly in g to ughness to R osh i,” sa y s L aw re n ce A bra h am so n, an ID EO d esig n d ir e cto r. “S he d oesn ’t p re se n t a n a g en da, b ut o f c o urs e t h ere i s a n a g en da b eh in d t h at, a n d it’ s g en tle g uid in g. A nd o ne o f th e b ig gest to ols in h er to olb ox is tim e. S he’ll sp en d so m uch tim e, b ein g p atie n t a n d c o ntin uin g to h av e c o nvers a tio ns a n d mak in g s u re t h e c o nvers a tio ns a re p ro gre ssin g i n a g ood d ir e ctio n.” “T here ’s alw ay s a m om en t w ith R osh i,” sa y s Pete r A nto nelli, a desig n dir e cto r. “ T here ’s a s p ir it o f p ro vocatio n c o nsta n tly a t p la y , to n udge, to h elp u s th in k bey ond w hat’ s im med ia te ly in fro nt of us. A nd it usu ally sta rts w ith questio nin g th e b ig o bvio us th in gs. It’ s n ev er c o nfro nta tio nal— sh e n ev er s a y s, ‘Y ou’re d oin g t h e w ro ng t h in g.’ I t’ s o rg an ic , e m bed ded i n c o nvers a tio n.” Watc h in g G iv ech i l is te n i s l ik e w atc h in g a s k ille d a th le te i n a ctio n. S he l is te n s ch ie fly w ith h er e y es, w hic h h av e a G eig er-c o unte r-lik e s e n sitiv ity to c h an ges in mood a n d e x pre ssio n. S he d ete cts s m all c h an ges a n d r e sp onds t o t h em s w if tly . I f you c o nvey a s c in tilla o f te n sio n a b out a s u bje ct, s h e w ill m ark it a n d f o llo w u p with a q uestio n d esig ned t o g en tly e x plo re t h e r e aso ns f o r t h at t e n sio n. W hen s h e sp eak s, s h e c o nsta n tly lin ks b ack to y ou w ith s m all p hra se s— Mayb e y o u’v e h ad an e xp erie n ce lik e th is … Your w ork m ig ht b e s im ila r… The r e a so n I w as p ausin g th ere w as… — th at pro vid e a ste ad y sig nal of co nnectio n. Y ou fin d yours e lf co m fo rta b le o pen in g u p, t a k in g r is k s, t e llin g t h e t r u th . It fe els lik e m ag ic , b ut in fa ct it’ s th e re su lt o f a lo t o f p ra ctic e. A s a c h ild , Giv ech i w ould u se a c asse tte re co rd er to c ap tu re h er v oic e re ad in g h er fa v orite books o ver a n d o ver, f a sc in ate d b y th e w ay tin y s h if ts in to ne a n d tim in g c o uld tr a n sfo rm m ean in g. A s a c o lle g e s tu den t, s tu dyin g p sy ch olo gy a n d d esig n, s h e volu nte ere d to a ssis t th e b lin d, a n d s h e w ro te h er c o lle g e th esis o n d an ce a n d ch ore o gra p hy. S he u se s t h e i d ea o f d an ce t o d esc rib e t h e s k ills s h e e m plo ys w ith ID EO ’s d esig n te am s: to fin d th e m usic , su pport h er p artn er, a n d fo llo w th e rh yth m . “ I d on’t s e e m yse lf a s th e c o nducto r o f th e m usic ,” s h e s a y s. “ I’m m ore of a n udger. I n udge th e c h ore o gra p hy a n d tr y to c re ate th e c o nditio ns f o r g ood th in gs t o h ap pen .” A y ear a g o I D EO d ecid ed to s c ale G iv ech i’ s a b ilitie s a cro ss th e o rg an iz atio n. They a sk ed h er to c re ate m odule s o f q uestio ns te am s c o uld a sk th em se lv es, th en pro vid ed th ose m odule s to d esig n te am s as to ols to h elp th em im pro ve. F or ex am ple , h ere a re a f e w : • The o ne t h in g t h at e x cite s m e a b out t h is p artic u la r o pportu nity i s • I c o nfe ss, t h e o ne t h in g I ’m n ot s o e x cite d a b out w ith t h is p artic u la r opportu nity i s • On t h is p ro je ct, I ’d r e ally l ik e t o g et b ette r a t The in te re stin g th in g a b out G iv ech i’ s q uestio ns is h ow tr a n sc en den tly s im ple th ey are . T hey h av e le ss to d o w ith d esig n th an w ith co nnectin g to d eep er em otio ns: f e ar, a m bitio n, m otiv atio n. I t’ s e asy t o i m ag in e t h at i n d if fe re n t h an ds, th ese q uestio ns c o uld f a ll f la t a n d f a il to ig nite c o nvers a tio n. T his is b ecau se th e re al p ow er o f th e in te ra ctio n is lo cate d in th e tw o-w ay e m otio nal s ig nalin g th at cre ate s a n a tm osp here o f c o nnectio n t h at s u rro unds t h e c o nvers a tio n. “T he w ord su btle is th e key ,” sa y s A bra h am so n. “S he’s unassu m in g an d dis a rm s p eo ple b ecau se s h e is s o o pen a n d lis te n in g a n d c arin g. R osh i h as th e ab ility to p au se c o m ple te ly , to s to p w hat m ust b e g oin g o n in h er h ead , to f o cu s co m ple te ly on th e pers o n an d th e questio n at han d, an d to se e w here th at questio n is le ad in g. S he is n ’t tr y in g to d ra g y ou s o m ew here , e v er. S he’s tr u ly se ein g y ou f ro m y our p ositio n, a n d t h at’ s h er p ow er.” “T he w ord em path y s o unds s o s o ft a n d n ic e, b ut t h at’ s n ot w hat’ s r e ally g oin g on,” sa y s N jo ki G ita h i, a se n io r co m munic atio n d esig ner. “W hat R osh i d oes re q uir e s a c ritic al u nders ta n din g o f w hat m ak es p eo ple tic k , a n d w hat m ak es peo ple t ic k i s n ’t a lw ay s b ein g n ic e t o t h em . P art o f i t i s t h at s h e k now s p eo ple s o well th at s h e u nders ta n ds w hat th ey n eed . S om etim es w hat th ey n eed is s u pport an d pra is e . B ut so m etim es w hat th ey need is a little knock on th e ch in , a re m in der th at th ey n eed to w ork h ard er, a n udge to tr y n ew th in gs. T hat’ s w hat sh e g iv es.” “S he’s re ally lis te n in g, h earin g w hat y ou sa id an d ask in g w hat it m ean s, dig gin g d eep er,” s a y s N ili M etu ki, d esig n r e se arc h er. “ S he d oesn ’t l e t t h in gs s ta y uncle ar, ev en when th ey ’re unco m fo rta b le . Esp ecia lly when th ey ’re unco m fo rta b le .” Where u pon w e m ust a sk : W hat is in sid e th at p au se , th at N yquis tia n m om en t of v uln era b le , a u th en tic c o nnectio n? T hat i s , c an w e p eer i n sid e t h is m om en t a n d se e w hat’ s r e ally h ap pen in g u ndern eath ? That’ s a q uestio n D r. C arl M arc i h as sp en t m uch o f h is care er ex plo rin g. Marc i, a neu ro lo gis t w ho te ach es at H arv ard , fir s t becam e fa sc in ate d w ith lis te n in g in a m ed ic al s c h ool c la ss th at f e atu re d a s e rie s o f n on-W este rn h eale rs . These h eale rs w ere u nco nven tio nal, e m plo yin g a s p ecta cu la r ra n ge o f m eth ods th at w ere s c ie n tif ic ally d ubio us— fo r e x am ple , g iv in g m assa g e w here th e h an ds did n’t to uch th e p atie n t, o r a d m in is te rin g d ro ps o f w ate r w ith c o ncen tr a tio ns o f in gre d ie n ts t h at a p pro ach ed z ero — an d y et t h ey a ch ie v ed r e m ark ab le r e su lts . O ne re aso n, M arc i cam e to se e, w as th e co nnectio n th e heale r fo rm ed w ith th e patie n t. “W hat th ese h eale rs a ll h ad in c o m mon w as th at th ey w ere b rillia n t lis te n ers . They w ould s it d ow n, ta k e a lo ng p atie n t h is to ry , a n d re ally g et to k now th eir patie n ts ,” M arc i sa y s. “T hey w ere all in cre d ib ly em path ic p eo ple w ho w ere re ally g ood at co nnectin g w ith p eo ple an d fo rm in g tr u stin g b onds. S o th at’ s when I r e aliz ed th at th e in te re stin g p art w asn ’t th e h ealin g b ut th e lis te n in g, a n d th e r e la tio nsh ip b ein g f o rm ed . T hat’ s w hat w e n eed ed t o s tu dy.” Marc i in ven te d a m eth od in w hic h h e v id eo ed c o nvers a tio ns w hile tr a ck in g galv an ic sk in re sp onse — th e ch an ge in ele ctr ic al re sis ta n ce th at m easu re s em otio nal a ro usa l. H e d is c o vere d t h at f o r m uch o f t h e t im e, t h e a ro usa l c u rv es o f tw o p eo ple in c o nvers a tio n b ore little o r n o re la tio n to e ach o th er. B ut h e a ls o fo und s p ecia l m om en ts , in c erta in c o nvers a tio ns, w hen th e tw o c u rv es fe ll in to perfe ct s y nc. M arc i c alle d t h ese m om en ts c o nco rd an ces. “C onco rd an ces h ap pen w hen o ne p ers o n c an r e act in a n a u th en tic w ay to th e em otio n b ein g p ro je cte d in th e ro om ,” M arc i s a y s. “ It’ s a b out u nders ta n din g in an em path ic w ay , th en doin g so m eth in g in te rm s of gestu re , co m men t, or ex pre ssio n t h at c re ate s a c o nnectio n.” One o f t h e c o nco rd an ce v id eo s i n clu ded M arc i h im se lf . H e i s s e ate d i n a c h air fa cin g a n o ld er m an in a g ra y th re e-p ie ce s u it, w ho h ap pen s to b e h is th era p is t. Marc i is d esc rib in g th e d ay h e p ro pose d to h is th en -g ir lf rie n d. T he m ach in e s its betw een th em , c ap tu rin g th e flu ctu atio ns o f th e in ner la n dsc ap e a n d p ro je ctin g th em o nto t h e s c re en i n t h e f o rm o f a p air o f b rig htly c o lo re d , s h if tin g l in es: b lu e fo r M arc i, a n d g re en f o r t h e m an i n t h e g ra y s u it. M ARCI : W e l ik e t o g o t o B re ad a n d C ir c u s a n d g et t h eir v eg eta b le s a m osa s. I sa id , “ W ell, I ’ll t r e at, w e’ll g et s o m e o f t h ose .” S o s h e f ig ure d w e w ere g oin g to h av e a p ic n ic u p t h ere o r s o m eth in g. G RA Y S UIT : [ s e rie s o f s m all, a ffir m in g n ods] M ARCI : T he s e co nd t h ought s h e h ad w as m ay be, w e’ll o ccasio nally g o u p th ere a n d w atc h t h e s u nse t, s h e s a id m ay be t h ere w as s o m eth in g f u nky g oin g on i n t h e s k y. G RA Y S UIT : [ b ig , d efin itiv e n od] M ARCI : A nd s h e s a id l ite ra lly , f o r l ik e a n an ose co nd, s h e e n te rta in ed t h e i d ea th at I w as g oin g t o p ro pose , b ut [ th e i d ea] w en t o ut f a ste r t h an i t w en t i n . G RA Y S UIT : [ s y m path etic n od, h ead t ilt] M ARCI : S o s h e g ets u p t h ere a n d s h e’s a ll d re sse d , l o okin g s tu nnin g a s s h e alw ay s d oes, a n d s h e s a y s, “ W hat’ s u p?” I n h in dsig ht s h e w as l o okin g f o r fo od a n d c o uld n’t f in d i t. G RA Y S UIT : [ s m all s m ile .] M ARCI : I s a id , “ C om e s it.” I r e cite d t h e f ir s t s ta n za o f t h e e . e . c u m min gs poem , a n d i t g oes, “ B ein g t o t im ele ssn ess a s i t’ s t o t im e, l o ve d id n o m ore beg in t h an l o ve w ill e n d.” G RA Y S UIT : [ h ead t ilts u pw ard , e y eb ro w s u p] M ARCI ( c o ntin uin g t o q uote ): “ W here n oth in g i s t o b re ath e t o s tr o ll t o s w im , lo ve i s t h e a ir t h e o cean a n d t h e l a n d.” A nd I s a id , “ Y ou a re m y a ir , a n d m y ocean , a n d m y l a n d.” G RA Y S UIT : [ h ead t ilt, s m ile , n od] M ARCI : A nd i t w as j u st t h e m ost t o uch in g t h in g, b ecau se s h e r e aliz ed w hat I was d oin g a s I g ot t h e r in g o ut, a n d j u st w ep t i n a w ay t h at w as s o s in cere a n d so e arn est, a n d s h e w as s o o verw helm ed . I t w as t o uch in g. I t w as n ic e. S he w as psy ch ed . G RA Y S UIT : [ s m all, a ffir m in g n ods] Watc h in g t h e v id eo , t h e f ir s t t h in g y ou n otic e i s t h at t h e c o nvers a tio n c o nta in s se v era l m om en ts o f p erfe ct c o nco rd an ce, w here th e g re en a n d b lu e lin es m ove with a p erfe ct c o ord in atio n, r is in g a n d f a llin g lik e p en nan ts r ip p lin g in a b re eze. The se co nd th in g y ou n otic e is th at th ese m om en ts h ap pen w ith out G ra y S uit ev er sp eak in g a w ord . T hat is n ot to sa y th at G ra y S uit is n ot in te ra ctin g. H e ra d ia te s a s te ad y a tte n tio n, a p ois e d s tilln ess. H is h an ds a re f o ld ed o n h is l a p . H is ey es a re u p a n d a le rt. H e r e acts w ith n ods, s m all e x pre ssio ns. I n o th er w ord s, h e is d oin g w hat R osh i G iv ech i d oes a t I D EO , a n d w hat H arry N yquis t p re su m ab ly did at B ell L ab s. H e is dem onstr a tin g th at th e m ost im porta n t m om en ts in co nvers a tio n h ap pen w hen o ne p ers o n i s a ctiv ely , i n te n tly l is te n in g. “It’ s not an accid en t th at co nco rd an ce hap pen s w hen th ere ’s one pers o n ta lk in g an d th e oth er pers o n lis te n in g,” M arc i sa y s. “It’ s very hard to be em path ic w hen y ou’re ta lk in g. T alk in g is re ally co m plic ate d , b ecau se y ou’re th in kin g a n d p la n nin g w hat y ou’re g oin g to sa y , a n d y ou te n d to g et stu ck in your o w n h ead . B ut n ot w hen y ou’re l is te n in g. W hen y ou’re r e ally l is te n in g, y ou lo se tim e. T here ’s n o s e n se o f y ours e lf , b ecau se it’ s n ot a b out y ou. I t’ s a ll a b out th is t a sk — to c o nnect c o m ple te ly t o t h at p ers o n.” Marc i has co nnecte d in cre ase s in co nco rd an ces to in cre ase s in perc eiv ed em path y: th e m ore c o nco rd an ces o ccu r, th e c lo se r th e tw o p eo ple fe el. W hat’ s more , th e c h an ges in c lo se n ess h ap pen n ot g ra d ually b ut a ll a t o nce. “ T here ’s ofte n o ne m om en t w here i t h ap pen s,” h e s a y s. “ T here ’s a n a ccele ra te d c h an ge t o th e re la tio nsh ip th at h ap pen s w hen y ou’re a b le to re ally lis te n , to b e in cre d ib ly pre se n t w ith th e p ers o n. It’ s lik e a b re ak th ro ugh— ‘W e w ere lik e th is , b ut n ow we’re goin g to in te ra ct in a new w ay , an d w e both unders ta n d th at it’ s hap pen ed .’   ” *1 Half w ay t h ro ugh o ur c o nvers a tio n, G iv ech i a sk ed m e a b out t h is b ook’s t itle a n d s u btitle . I t o ld h er, a n d sh e p au se d — a l o ng, m ean in gfu l p au se . T hen s h e a sk ed , “ D oes t h at s u btitle r e ally w ork ?” A f e w m in ute s la te r, a fte r a f e w b ack -a n d-fo rth s, t h is b ook h ad a n ew a n d i m pro ved s u btitle . I ’m n ot c erta in i f I su ggeste d t h e c h an ge o r i f s h e d id . A s G iv ech i w ould s a y , w e s u rfa ced i t t o geth er. *2 Robert B ale s, o ne o f t h e f ir s t s c ie n tis ts t o s tu dy g ro up c o m munic atio n, d is c o vere d t h at w hile q uestio ns co m pris e o nly 6 p erc en t o f v erb al i n te ra ctio ns, t h ey g en era te 6 0 p erc en t o f e n su in g d is c u ssio ns. B uild in g h ab its o f g ro up v uln era b ility is lik e b uild in g a m usc le . It ta k es tim e, r e p etitio n, a n d t h e w illin gness t o f e el p ain i n o rd er t o a ch ie v e g ain s. A nd a s w ith b uild in g m usc le , t h e f ir s t k ey i s t o a p pro ach t h e p ro cess w ith a p la n . W ith t h at i n m in d, h ere a re a f e w w ork out i d eas, f o r b oth i n div id uals a n d g ro ups. M ake S ure th e L eader Is V uln era ble F ir s t a nd O fte n: A s w e’v e s e en , g ro up c o opera tio n i s c re ate d b y s m all, fre q uen tly re p eate d m om en ts o f v uln era b ility . O f th ese , n one c arrie s m ore p ow er th an th e m om en t w hen a le ad er sig nals v uln era b ility . A s D av e C ooper s a y s, I s c re w ed th at u p a re th e m ost im porta n t w ord s a n y le ad er c an s a y . I s a w a v iv id e x am ple w hen I w atc h ed r e sta u ra te u r D an ny M ey er r u n o ne o f h is m orn in g m eetin gs w ith h is s ta ff (a b out tw en ty p eo ple ). M ey er, w hom w e’ll m eet u p c lo se in C hap te r 1 5, is th e f o under o f U nio n S quare C afe , S hak e S hack , G ra m erc y T av ern , an d a n um ber o f o th er re sta u ra n ts th at to geth er are w orth m ore th an a b illio n d olla rs . T he n ig ht b efo re m y v is it, h e h ad d eliv ere d h is f ir s t- e v er T ED T alk . T he sta ff m eetin g b eg an w ith th e g ro up w atc h in g a v id eo o f M ey er’s s p eech . T hen t h e l ig hts w en t u p, a n d M ey er s p oke. “C an y ou s e e m y le g s h ak in g?” h e a sk ed th e g ro up. “ I w as s o n erv ous, I w as s h ak in g lik e a le af. I’v e g iv en a lo t o f sp eech es, b ut th e T ED p eo ple w an te d s o m eth in g m ore , s o m eth in g d eep er a n d th oughtf u l. S o I s le p t a b out th re e h ours t h e n ig ht b efo re , w hic h is w hy I h av e th ose b ag s u nder m y e y es. W e h ad a t e rrib le re h ears a l, a n d I k ep t sc re w in g u p th e P ow erP oin t. S o it w as a lm ost a c o m ple te sh it sh ow . E xcep t th at I’m lu ck y en ough to h av e so m e ab so lu te ly brillia n t h elp .” H e p au se d a n d p oin te d . “ T han ks, C hip a n d H ale y . T hey m ad e t h e whole th in g w ork . T hey w ro te g re at s tu ff, g av e m e g re at a d vic e, a n d k ep t m e to geth er.” E very one lo oked at C hip an d H ale y an d gav e a sh ort ro und of ap pla u se w hile M ey er l o oked o n a p pro vin gly . Mey er d eliv ere d th e m essa g e— I w as sc a re d —with ste ad in ess, co nfid en ce, an d c o m fo rt th at u nderlin ed th e d eep er m essa g e: It’ s s a fe to te ll th e tr u th h ere . His v uln era b ility i s n ’t w eak ness; i t’ s h is s tr e n gth . Lasz lo B ock , fo rm er h ead o f P eo ple A naly tic s a t G oogle , re co m men ds th at le ad ers a sk t h eir p eo ple t h re e q uestio ns: • What i s o ne t h in g t h at I c u rre n tly d o t h at y ou’d l ik e m e t o c o ntin ue t o d o? • What i s o ne t h in g t h at I d on’t c u rre n tly d o f re q uen tly e n ough t h at y ou t h in k I s h ould d o m ore o fte n ? • What c an I d o t o m ak e y ou m ore e ffe ctiv e? “T he k ey is to a sk n ot fo r fiv e o r te n th in gs b ut ju st o ne,” B ock s a y s. “ T hat way i t’ s e asie r f o r p eo ple t o a n sw er. A nd w hen a l e ad er a sk s f o r f e ed back i n t h is way , it m ak es it s a fe f o r th e p eo ple w ho w ork w ith th em to d o th e s a m e. I t c an get c o nta g io us.” Ove rc o m munic a te E xp ecta tio ns: T he s u ccessfu l g ro ups I v is ite d d id n ot p re su m e th at co opera tio n w ould h ap pen o n its o w n. I n ste ad , th ey w ere e x plic it a n d p ers is te n t ab out se n din g b ig , cle ar sig nals th at esta b lis h ed th ose ex pecta tio ns, m odele d co opera tio n, an d alig ned la n guag e an d ro le s to m ax im iz e help in g beh av io r. ID EO is a g ood e x am ple . Its le ad ers c o nsta n tly ta lk a b out th e e x pecta tio n o f co opera tio n. (C EO T im B ro w n in cessa n tly re p eats h is m an tr a th at th e m ore co m ple x th e p ro ble m , th e m ore h elp y ou n eed to s o lv e it.) T hey c le arly d efin e help in g ro le s a n d m odel v uln era b ility . (T heir in te rn al b ulle tin b oard s a re fille d with r e q uests : Does a nyb ody k n ow o f a g ood y o ga c la ss? C an a nyb ody h elp m e fin d a c a t s itte r fo r C hris tm as w eek? ) In c ase y ou m is s th ose s ig nals , th ey a re als o w ritte n in b ig le tte rs b oth o n th e w alls o f th e N ew Y ork o ffic e a n d in th e pag es o f th e Little B ook o f I D EO , a c o py o f w hic h is g iv en to e v ery e m plo yee. Am ong th e re fra in s: Colla bora te an d Make O th ers S uccessfu l: G oin g O ut o f Your W ay t o H elp O th ers I s t h e S ecre t S auce. Deliv e r th e N egativ e S tu ff in P ers o n: T his w as a n in fo rm al ru le th at I e n co unte re d a t se v era l c u ltu re s. I t g oes lik e th is : I f y ou h av e n eg ativ e n ew s o r f e ed back to g iv e so m eo ne— ev en as sm all as a re je cte d ite m on an ex pen se re p ort— you are oblig ate d to d eliv er th at n ew s fa ce-to -fa ce. T his ru le is n ot e asy to fo llo w (it’ s fa r m ore co m fo rta b le fo r both th e se n der an d re ceiv er to co m munic ate ele ctr o nic ally ), b ut it w ork s b ecau se it d eals w ith te n sio n in a n u p-fro nt, h onest way t h at a v oid s m is u nders ta n din gs a n d c re ate s s h are d c la rity a n d c o nnectio n. One o f t h e b est m eth ods f o r h an dlin g n eg ativ e n ew s i s t h at o f J o e M ad don, t h e co ach o f t h e C hic ag o C ubs a n d a v ow ed o en ophile . I n h is o ffic e, M ad don k eep s a gla ss bow l fille d w ith slip s of pap er, each in sc rib ed w ith th e nam e of an ex pen siv e w in e. W hen a p la y er v io la te s a te am r u le , M ad don a sk s th em to d ra w a slip o f p ap er o ut o f th e b ow l, p urc h ase th at w in e, a n d u nco rk it w ith th eir man ag er. In oth er w ord s, M ad don lin ks th e act of dis c ip lin e to th e act of re co nnectio n. When F orm in g N ew G ro ups, F ocu s o n T w o C rit ic a l M om ents : Je ff P olz er, th e H arv ard Busin ess S ch ool p ro fe sso r w ho s tu die s o rg an iz atio nal b eh av io r ( s e e C hap te r 8 ), tr a ces a n y g ro up’s c o opera tio n n orm s to tw o c ritic al m om en ts th at h ap pen e arly in a g ro up’s l if e . T hey a re : 1. The f ir s t v uln era b ility 2. The f ir s t d is a g re em en t These s m all m om en ts a re d oorw ay s t o t w o p ossib le g ro up p ath s: Are w e a bout appea rin g str o ng o r a bout exp lo rin g th e la ndsc a pe to geth er? A re w e a bout win nin g in te ra ctio ns, o r a bout le a rn in g to geth er? “ A t th ose m om en ts , p eo ple eith er d ig in a n d b eco m e d efe n siv e a n d s ta rt ju stif y in g, a n d a lo t o f te n sio n g ets cre ate d ,” P olz er s a y s. “ O r th ey s a y s o m eth in g lik e, ‘ H ey , th at’ s in te re stin g. W hy don’t y ou a g re e? I m ig ht b e w ro ng, a n d I’m c u rio us a n d w an t to ta lk a b out it so m e m ore .’ W hat h ap pen s in th at m om en t h elp s s e t th e p atte rn fo r e v ery th in g th at f o llo w s.” Lis te n L ik e a T ra m polin e: G ood lis te n in g is a b out m ore th an n oddin g a tte n tiv ely ; it’ s ab out a d din g in sig ht a n d c re atin g m om en ts o f m utu al d is c o very . Ja ck Z en ger an d Jo se p h Folk m an , w ho ru n a le ad ers h ip co nsu lta n cy , an aly zed 3,4 92 partic ip an ts in a m an ag er dev elo pm en t pro gra m an d fo und th at th e m ost effe ctiv e l is te n ers d o f o ur t h in gs: 1. They i n te ra ct i n w ay s t h at m ak e t h e o th er p ers o n f e el s a fe a n d s u pporte d 2. They t a k e a h elp in g, c o opera tiv e s ta n ce 3. They o ccasio nally a sk q uestio ns t h at g en tly a n d c o nstr u ctiv ely c h alle n ge old a ssu m ptio ns 4. They m ak e o ccasio nal s u ggestio ns t o o pen u p a lte rn ativ e p ath s As Z en ger an d Folk m an put it, th e m ost effe ctiv e lis te n ers beh av e lik e tr a m polin es. T hey a re n ’t p assiv e s p onges. T hey a re a ctiv e r e sp onders , a b so rb in g what th e o th er p ers o n g iv es, su pportin g th em , a n d a d din g e n erg y to h elp th e co nvers a tio n g ain v elo city a n d a ltitu de. Als o lik e tr a m polin es, e ffe ctiv e lis te n ers g ain a m plitu de th ro ugh re p etitio n. When a sk in g q uestio ns, th ey ra re ly s to p a t th e fir s t re sp onse . R ath er, th ey fin d dif fe re n t w ay s to e x plo re a n a re a o f te n sio n, in o rd er to re v eal th e tr u th s a n d co nnectio ns t h at w ill e n ab le c o opera tio n. “I’v e fo und th at w hen ev er y ou a sk a q uestio n, th e fir s t re sp onse y ou g et is usu ally n ot th e a n sw er— it’ s ju st th e fir s t re sp onse ,” R osh i G iv ech i s a y s. “ S o I tr y t o f in d w ay s t o s lo w ly s u rfa ce t h in gs, t o b rin g o ut w hat o ught t o b e s h are d s o th at p eo ple c an b uild fro m it. Y ou h av e to fin d a lo t o f w ay s to a sk th e s a m e questio n, a n d a p pro ach th e s a m e q uestio n fro m a lo t o f d if fe re n t a n gle s. T hen you h av e t o b uild q uestio ns f ro m t h at r e sp onse , t o e x plo re m ore .” In C onve rs a tio n, R esis t th e T em pta tio n to R efle xiv e ly A dd V alu e: T he m ost i m porta n t p art o f cre atin g v uln era b ility o fte n re sid es n ot in w hat y ou s a y b ut in w hat y ou d o not sa y . T his m ean s hav in g th e w illp ow er to fo rg o easy opportu nitie s to offe r so lu tio ns a n d m ak e s u ggestio ns. S kille d lis te n ers d o n ot in te rru pt w ith p hra se s lik e Hey, h ere ’s a n id ea o r Let m e te ll y o u w hat w ork ed fo r m e in a sim ila r situ atio n b ecau se th ey u nders ta n d th at it’ s n ot a b out th em . T hey u se a r e p erto ir e of g estu re s a n d p hra se s th at k eep th e o th er p ers o n ta lk in g. “ O ne o f th e th in gs I sa y m ost o fte n is p ro bab ly th e s im ple st th in g I s a y ,” s a y s G iv ech i. “   ‘S ay m ore ab out t h at.’   ” It’ s n ot th at s u ggestio ns a re o ff lim its ; ra th er th ey s h ould b e m ad e o nly a fte r you e sta b lis h w hat G iv ech i c alls “ a sc affo ld o f th oughtf u ln ess.” T he sc affo ld underlie s th e co nvers a tio n, su pportin g th e ris k s an d v uln era b ilitie s. W ith th e sc affo ld , p eo ple w ill b e s u pporte d in ta k in g th e ris k s th at c o opera tio n re q uir e s. With out i t, t h e c o nvers a tio n c o lla p se s. Use C andor-G enera tin g P ra ctic e s lik e A AR s, B ra in T ru sts , a nd R ed T eam in g: W hile A ARs were o rig in ally b uilt fo r th e m ilita ry e n vir o nm en t, th e to ol c an b e a p plie d to oth er d om ain s. O ne g ood A AR s tr u ctu re i s t o u se f iv e q uestio ns: 1. What w ere o ur i n te n ded r e su lts ? 2. What w ere o ur a ctu al r e su lts ? 3. What c au se d o ur r e su lts ? 4. What w ill w e d o t h e s a m e n ex t t im e? 5. What w ill w e d o d if fe re n tly ? Som e te am s a ls o u se a B efo re -A ctio n R ev ie w , w hic h is b uilt a ro und a s im ila r se t o f q uestio ns: 1. What a re o ur i n te n ded r e su lts ? 2. What c h alle n ges c an w e a n tic ip ate ? 3. What h av e w e o r o th ers l e arn ed f ro m s im ila r s itu atio ns? 4. What w ill m ak e u s s u ccessfu l t h is t im e? A c o uple o f tip s: I t m ay b e u se fu l to f o llo w th e S E A Ls’ h ab it o f r u nnin g th e AAR w ith out le ad ers h ip in volv em en t, to b oost o pen ness a n d h onesty . L ik ew is e , it m ay b e u se fu l to w rite d ow n th e f in din gs— partic u la rly w hat w ill b e d one th e sa m e o r d if fe re n tly n ex t tim e— an d s h are th em a cro ss th e g ro up. A fte r a ll, th e goal o f a n A AR i s n ot j u st t o f ig ure o ut w hat h ap pen ed b ut a ls o t o b uild a s h are d men ta l m odel t h at h elp s t h e g ro up n av ig ate f u tu re p ro ble m s. Bra in T ru sts , t h e p ro je ct- b ase d m eth od p io neere d b y P ix ar, i n volv e a sse m blin g a t e am o f e x perie n ced l e ad ers w ho h av e n o f o rm al a u th ority o ver t h e p ro je ct a n d le ttin g t h em c ritiq ue i ts s tr e n gth s a n d w eak nesse s i n a f ra n k a n d o pen m an ner. A key r u le o f B ra in T ru sts is th at th e te am is n ot a llo w ed to s u ggest s o lu tio ns, o nly to h ig hlig ht p ro ble m s. T his r u le m ain ta in s th e p ro je ct le ad ers ’ o w ners h ip o f th e ta sk , a n d h elp s p re v en t t h em f ro m a ssu m in g a p assiv e, o rd er-ta k in g r o le . Red T eam in g is a m ilita ry -d eriv ed m eth od f o r te stin g s tr a te g ie s; y ou c re ate a “re d te am ” to c o m e u p w ith id eas to d is ru pt o r d efe at y our p ro pose d p la n . T he key i s t o s e le ct a r e d t e am t h at i s n ot w ed ded t o t h e e x is tin g p la n i n a n y w ay , a n d to g iv e th em fre ed om to th in k in n ew w ay s th at th e p la n ners m ig ht n ot h av e an tic ip ate d . AARs, B ra in T ru sts , a n d R ed T eam s e ach g en era te t h e s a m e u nderly in g a ctio n: to b uild th e h ab it o f o pen in g u p v uln era b ilitie s so th at th e g ro up can b ette r unders ta n d w hat w ork s, w hat d oesn ’t w ork , a n d h ow t o g et b ette r. Aim fo r C andor; A vo id B ru ta l H onesty : G iv in g h onest f e ed back is tr ic k y, b ecau se it c an easily r e su lt in p eo ple f e elin g h urt o r d em ora liz ed . O ne u se fu l d is tin ctio n, m ad e most c le arly a t P ix ar, is to a im f o r c an dor a n d a v oid b ru ta l h onesty . B y a im in g fo r can dor— fe ed back th at is sm alle r, m ore ta rg ete d , le ss pers o nal, le ss ju dgm en ta l, a n d e q ually im pactf u l— it’ s e asie r to m ain ta in a s e n se o f s a fe ty a n d belo ngin g i n t h e g ro up. Em bra ce th e D is co m fo rt: O ne o f th e m ost d if fic u lt th in gs a b out c re atin g h ab its o f vuln era b ility is th at it re q uir e s a g ro up to e n dure tw o d is c o m fo rts : e m otio nal pain a n d a s e n se o f in effic ie n cy . D oin g a n A AR o r a B ra in T ru st c o m bin es th e re p etitio n o f d ig gin g in to so m eth in g th at alr e ad y h ap pen ed (s h ould n’t w e b e movin g fo rw ard ?) w ith th e burn in g aw kw ard ness in here n t in co nfro ntin g unple asa n t t r u th s. B ut a s w ith a n y w ork out, t h e k ey i s t o u nders ta n d t h at t h e p ain is n ot a p ro ble m b ut t h e p ath t o b uild in g a s tr o nger g ro up. Alig n Language wit h Actio n: M an y hig hly co opera tiv e gro ups use la n guag e to re in fo rc e th eir in te rd ep en den ce. F or e x am ple , n av y p ilo ts re tu rn in g to a ir c ra ft carrie rs do not “la n d” but are “re co vere d .” ID EO doesn ’t hav e “p ro je ct man ag ers ” — it h as “ d esig n c o m munity le ad ers .” G ro ups a t P ix ar d o n ot o ffe r “n ote s” o n e arly v ers io ns o f film s; th ey “ p lu s” th em b y o ffe rin g so lu tio ns to pro ble m s. T hese m ig ht se em lik e sm all se m an tic d if fe re n ces, b ut th ey m atte r becau se th ey c o ntin ually h ig hlig ht th e c o opera tiv e, in te rc o nnecte d n atu re o f th e work a n d r e in fo rc e t h e g ro up’s s h are d i d en tity . Build a W all B etw een P erfo rm ance R evie w a nd P ro fe ssio nal D eve lo pm ent: W hile it s e em s natu ra l to h old th ese tw o c o nvers a tio ns to geth er, in fa ct it’ s m ore e ffe ctiv e to keep p erfo rm an ce re v ie w a n d p ro fe ssio nal d ev elo pm en t s e p ara te . P erfo rm an ce ev alu atio n te n ds to b e a h ig h-ris k , in ev ita b ly ju dgm en ta l in te ra ctio n, o fte n w ith sa la ry -re la te d co nse q uen ces. Dev elo pm en t, on th e oth er han d, is ab out id en tif y in g str e n gth s an d pro vid in g su pport an d opportu nitie s fo r gro w th . Lin kin g t h em i n to o ne c o nvers a tio n m uddie s t h e w ate rs . R ela te d ly , m an y g ro ups hav e m oved aw ay fro m ra n kin g w ork ers an d sh if te d to m ore o f a co ach in g model, w here p eo ple re ceiv e fre q uen t fe ed back d esig ned to p ro vid e th em w ith both a v iv id p erfo rm an ce s n ap sh ot a n d a p ath f o r i m pro vem en t. Use F la sh M ento rin g: O ne o f th e b est te ch niq ues I ’v e s e en f o r c re atin g c o opera tio n in a g ro up is f la sh m en to rin g. I t is e x actly lik e tr a d itio nal m en to rin g— you p ic k so m eo ne you w an t to le arn fro m an d sh ad ow th em — ex cep t th at in ste ad of month s o r y ears , it la sts a fe w h ours . T hose b rie f in te ra ctio ns h elp b re ak d ow n barrie rs i n sid e a g ro up, b uild r e la tio nsh ip s, a n d f a cilita te t h e a w are n ess t h at f u els help in g b eh av io r. Make th e L eader O cca sio nally D is a ppear: S ev era l l e ad ers o f s u ccessfu l g ro ups h av e t h e hab it o f l e av in g t h e g ro up a lo ne a t k ey m om en ts . O ne o f t h e b est a t t h is i s G re g g Popovic h . M ost N BA te am s ru n tim e-o uts acco rd in g to a ch ore o gra p hed pro to co l: F ir s t th e c o ach es h uddle a s a g ro up fo r a fe w s e co nds to s e ttle o n a messa g e, t h en t h ey w alk o ver t o t h e b en ch t o d eliv er t h at m essa g e t o t h e p la y ers . How ev er, d urin g a b out o ne tim e-o ut a m onth , th e S purs c o ach es h uddle fo r a tim e-o ut… an d th en n ev er w alk o ver to th e p la y ers . T he p la y ers s it o n th e b en ch , waitin g f o r P opovic h t o s h ow u p. T hen , a s t h ey b ela te d ly r e aliz e h e i s n ’t c o m in g, th ey t a k e c h arg e, s ta rt t a lk in g a m ong t h em se lv es, a n d f ig ure o ut a p la n . The N ew Z eala n d A ll- B la ck s r u gby t e am h av e m ad e a h ab it o f t h is , a s p la y ers le ad se v era l p ra ctic e se ssio ns each w eek w ith little in put fro m th e co ach es. When I a sk ed D av e C ooper to n am e th e sin gle tr a it th at h is b est- p erfo rm in g SE A L t e am s s h are d , h e s a id , “ T he b est t e am s t e n ded t o b e t h e o nes I w asn ’t t h at in volv ed w ith , e sp ecia lly w hen it c am e to tr a in in g. T hey w ould d is a p pear a n d not re ly o n m e a t a ll. T hey w ere b ette r a t fig urin g o ut w hat th ey n eed ed to d o th em se lv es t h an I c o uld e v er b e.” O ne d ay in 1 975 J a m es B urk e, p re sid en t o f th e h ealth c are c o m pan y J o hnso n & J o hnso n, su m moned th ir ty -fiv e of th e co m pan y’s se n io r m an ag ers fo r an u nco nven tio nal m eetin g. T hey w ere n ’t g oin g to ta lk a b out s tr a te g y o r m ark etin g o r p la n nin g— or a n yth in g to d o w ith b usin ess, r e ally . T he g oal w as to d is c u ss a t h ir ty -tw o-y ear-o ld , o ne-p ag e d ocu m en t c alle d t h e C re d o. The C re d o h ad b een w ritte n i n 1 943 b y R obert W ood J o hnso n, t h e c o m pan y’s f o rm er c h air m an a n d a m em ber o f i ts f o undin g f a m ily . H ere ’s h ow i t b eg in s: We b elie v e o ur f ir s t r e sp onsib ility i s t o d octo rs , n urs e s, a n d patie n ts ; t o m oth ers a n d f a th ers a n d a ll o th ers w ho u se o ur p ro ducts an d s e rv ic es. I n m eetin g t h eir n eed s e v ery th in g w e d o m ust b e o f hig h q uality . W e m ust c o nsta n tly s tr iv e t o r e d uce o ur c o sts i n o rd er to m ain ta in r e aso nab le p ric es. C usto m ers ’ o rd ers m ust b e s e rv ic ed pro m ptly a n d a ccu ra te ly . It g oes o n lik e th at fo r fo ur p ara g ra p hs, d esc rib in g th e re la tio nsh ip to e ach g ro up of sta k eh old ers an d prio ritiz in g th em as fo llo w s: (1 ) cu sto m ers , (2 ) e m plo yees, ( 3 ) c o m munity , a n d ( 4 ) c o m pan y s to ck hold ers . A s v alu e s ta te m en ts g o, it’ s a s o lid o ne: c le ar, fo rth rig ht, a n d rin gin g w ith O ld T esta m en t g ra v ita s. ( T he w ord must ap pears tw en ty -o ne tim es.) The C re d o w as pro m in en tly d is p la y ed a t a ll Jo hnso n & Jo hnso n b usin esse s a n d w as c arv ed in to a g ra n ite w all a t t h e c o m pan y’s N ew J e rs e y h ead quarte rs . The p ro ble m , a s B urk e s a w it, w as th at th e C re d o d id n’t s e em to m atte r m uch t o m an y e m plo yees— an d w hat w as m ore , h e w asn ’t s u re th at it sh ould m atte r. Tim es h ad c h an ged . I t w asn ’t th at th ere w as a n o pen r e v olt a g ain st th e C re d o; it was m ore th at B urk e p ic k ed u p a s u btle v ib e a s h e tr a v ele d a ro und th e c o m pan y an d w atc h ed p eo ple w ork a n d in te ra ct. A s h e sa id la te r, “ A lo t o f th e y oung peo ple th at w ere co m in g in to Jo hnso n & Jo hnso n re ally did n’t pay m uch atte n tio n to it. M an y o f th em f e lt th at it w as k in d o f a p ublic r e la tio ns g im mic k . It w asn ’t a u nif y in g d ocu m en t.” Burk e’s id ea w as to h old a m eetin g to d ete rm in e w hat ro le th e C re d o h ad in th e c o m pan y’s fu tu re . W hen h e p ro pose d h is id ea, m an y Jo hnso n & Jo hnso n le ad ers r e je cte d it o utr ig ht. T o q uestio n s u ch a f o undatio nal d ocu m en t s e em ed a waste of tim e. Dic k Sella rs , ch air m an of th e board , calle d th e notio n “rid ic u lo us.” H e to ld B urk e th at c h alle n gin g th e C re d o w ould b e lik e a C ath olic decid in g t o c h alle n ge t h e p ope. Burk e, a g ra v el- v oic ed V erm onte r w ho’d c o m man ded a la n din g c ra ft d urin g World W ar I I, d id n’t b ack d ow n. “ I c h alle n ge [ th e p ope] e v ery d ay w hen I w ak e up,” h e s a id . “ I th in k a t tim es h e’s c ra zy . I th in k a t tim es m y r e lig io n is n uts . O f co urs e I ch alle n ge it. E very body ch alle n ges th eir v alu es, an d th at’ s w hat w e ought t o d o w ith t h e C re d o.” H e p re v aile d . The m eetin g w as h eld in a la rg e b an quet r o om . A fte r th e m an ag ers to ok th eir se ats , B urk e o utlin ed th eir ta sk . “ Y ou g uys a re in a p ositio n o f b ein g a b le to ch alle n ge th is d ocu m en t, w hic h is th e s o ul o f th e c o rp ora tio n,” h e s a id . “ A nd if you c an ’t liv e b y its p rin cip le s, w e o ught to te ar it o ff th e w alls , b ecau se it’ s a n act o f p re te n sio n to le av e it th ere . A nd if y ou w an t to c h an ge it, te ll u s h ow it ought t o b e c h an ged .” With t h at, t h e c o nvers a tio n b eg an . “ I t h in k [ th e C re d o] s h ould b e a n a b so lu te ,” sa id o ne m an ag er. “Y ou c an ’t k id y ours e lf ,” in te rru pte d a n oth er. “ T he p urp ose o f th e b usin ess is to m ak e a p ro fit.” Anoth er m an ag er s p oke u p. “ S hould w e n ot th ere fo re d o w hat is b est f o r th e busin ess, n ot o nly w hat is m ora lly a n d e th ic ally c o rre ct, b ut w hat is b est f o r th e busin ess b y fo llo w in g th e C re d o s o th at w e d o m eet [th e] n eed s o f s o cie ty a n d th ere fo re a re a b le t o d o t h in gs b ette r a n d d ecen t a n d h um an ?” “C harlie , th at’ s m oth erh ood a n d a p ple p ie , a n d w e’re a ll in a g re em en t w ith th at,” sa id a sh arp -v oic ed m an w ith a c o m b-o ver. “ T he q uestio n is , w hic h o f th ese a re le g itim ate d em an ds o f s o cie ty , a n d h ow m an y o f th ese c an w e fu lf ill an d s ta y i n b usin ess.” You g et th e id ea. T his w asn ’t a b usin ess m eetin g; it w as c lo se r to a c o lle g e philo so phy se m in ar. For th e en tir e day , th e th ir ty -s ix peo ple in th at ro om atte m pte d to lo cate th e c o m pan y’s p la ce in th e m ora l u niv ers e ; th at n ig ht s o m e sta y ed u p la te p uttin g th oughts to p ap er. B y th e e n d o f th e p ro cess, th ey r e ach ed a c o nse n su s t o r e co m mit t o t h e e x is tin g C re d o. Over th e n ex t s e v era l y ears , B urk e k ep t r e -c re atin g th is c o nvers a tio n, h old in g Cre d o c h alle n ges a t a ll le v els o f th e c o m pan y. A nd th e c h alle n ges se em ed to work ; h e a n d o th ers s e n se d th at e m plo yees s e em ed to h av e a f re sh a w are n ess o f th e C re d o. B ut o f c o urs e , th ese k in ds o f th in gs a re m ostly in ta n gib le , d if fic u lt to measu re i n t h e c o urs e o f n orm al l if e . Sev en y ears la te r, o n S ep te m ber 3 0, 1 982, n orm al lif e c am e to a n a b ru pt h alt. Burk e r e ceiv ed a p hone c all th at s ix p eo ple w ere d ead in C hic ag o b ecau se th ey had in geste d h is c o m pan y’s p ro duct: E xtr a -S tr e n gth T yle n ol c ap su le s th at h ad been la ced w ith c y an id e. In C hic ag o, p an ic e n su ed . P olic e ro am ed th e str e ets usin g b ullh orn s to w arn p eo ple . B oy S co ut tr o ops w en t d oor to d oor to a le rt eld erly peo ple w ho m ig ht hav e m is se d th e w arn in gs. T he fo llo w in g day a se v en th v ic tim w as fo und, an d w orrie s co ntin ued to sp re ad . O ffic ia ls in S an Fra n cis c o w arn ed re sid en ts n ot to flu sh th eir T yle n ol d ow n th e to ile t le st th ey ris k c o nta m in atin g th e s e w ag e s y ste m w ith p ois o n. O ne n ew s s e rv ic e c alc u la te d th at th e T yle n ol p ois o nin gs g en era te d th e w id est U .S . n ew s c o vera g e s in ce th e assa ssin atio n o f P re sid en t K en ned y. In a f e w h ours , J o hnso n & J o hnso n w en t f ro m b ein g a p ro vid er o f m ed ic in e t o bein g a p ro vid er o f p ois o n. T he a tm osp here a t h ead quarte rs w as a m ix o f s h ock an d d is b elie f. T he la rg er p ro ble m , fro m J o hnso n & J o hnso n’s p ers p ectiv e, w as th at t h e c o m pan y w as n ot e q uip ped t o d eal w ith t h is c ris is . I t d id n’t h av e a p ublic affa ir s d iv is io n o r a sy ste m fo r re callin g p ills , a n d its m ed ia re la tio ns sy ste m co nsis te d o f a s p ir a l n ote b ook. “ It lo oked lik e th e p la g ue,” s a id D av id C ollin s, ch air m an o f M cN eil P ro ducts , th e J o hnso n s u bsid ia ry th at m ad e T yle n ol. “ W e had n o id ea w here it w ould e n d. A nd th e o nly in fo rm atio n w e h ad w as th at w e did n’t k now w hat w as g oin g o n.” An o ffic e a t c o m pan y h ead quarte rs w as c o nverte d in to a m ak esh if t w ar r o om . Som eo ne lo cate d d ra w in g p ap er a n d a n e ase l. A s in fo rm atio n c am e in — vic tim s, lo catio ns, lo t n um bers o f th e p ills , lo catio n o f p urc h ase — it w as sc ra w le d o n sh eets o f p ap er, w hic h w ere th en ta p ed to th e w alls . B efo re lo ng th e w alls w ere dra p ed w ith u rg en t q uestio ns t o w hic h t h ere w ere n o a n sw ers . T he o nly c erta in ty was th at T yle n ol w as fin is h ed a s a b usin ess. “ I d on’t th in k th ey c an e v er se ll an oth er p ro duct u nder th at n am e,” J e rry D ella F em in a, a le g en dary a d vertis in g guru , t o ld The New Y ork T im es . Burk e fo rm ed a se v en -m em ber co m mitte e, w ho sta rte d w ork in g th eir w ay th ro ugh th e casc ad e of to ugh decis io ns. H ow sh ould th ey w ork w ith la w en fo rc em en t? W hat s h ould t h ey t e ll t h e p ublic ? M ost c ru cia lly , w hat s h ould t h ey do w ith o th er T yle n ol p ro ducts t h at w ere o n s h elv es a ro und t h e n atio n? Four d ay s a fte r th e p ois o nin gs, B urk e a n d o th er m em bers o f th e c o m mitte e fle w to W ash in gto n, D .C ., to d is c u ss str a te g y w ith th e F B I a n d th e F ood a n d Dru g A dm in is tr a tio n (F D A). T he F B I a n d th e F D A s tr o ngly e n co ura g ed B urk e to lim it th e re call to C hic ag o, sin ce n o p ois o n h ad y et b een lo cate d o uts id e Chic ag o. A natio nal re call, th ey sa id , w ould need le ssly frig hte n th e public , em bold en th e p ois o ner, a n d e n co ura g e c o pycats . A nd a s th e F B I d id n’t n eed to poin t o ut, a l a rg er r e call w ould c o st J o hnso n & J o hnso n m illio ns o f d olla rs . Burk e a n d h is g ro up t h ought a b out i t f o r a w hile . T hen t h ey i g nore d t h e a d vic e of th e F B I an d th e F D A an d o rd ere d an im med ia te n atio nal re call o f ev ery Tyle n ol pro duct on th e m ark et— 31 m illio n pills in all— at a co st of $100 millio n. W hen B urk e w as ask ed fo r his re aso nin g beh in d th e decis io n, th e an sw er c am e q uic k ly : We b elie ve o ur fir st r e sp onsib ility is to d octo rs, n urse s, and p atie n ts ; to m oth ers a nd fa th ers a nd a ll o th ers w ho u se o ur p ro ducts a nd se rv ic es. Over th e n ex t d ay s a n d w eek s, Jo hnso n & Jo hnso n e sse n tia lly tr a n sfo rm ed its e lf fro m a pharm aceu tic al co m pan y in to a public sa fe ty org an iz atio n. It desig ned an d m an ufa ctu re d in novativ e ta m per-p ro of pack ag in g; dev elo ped ex ch an ge, dis p osa l, an d re fu nd pro gra m s; an d built re la tio nsh ip s with govern m en t, la w en fo rc em en t, an d m ed ia . Four w eek s afte r th e atta ck s, it mobiliz ed m ore th an tw o th ousa n d s a le sp eo ple to v is it d octo rs a n d p harm acis ts to l is te n t o t h eir c o ncern s a n d i n fo rm t h em o f t h e u pco m in g c h an ges. Burk e te rrif ie d th e c o m pan y’s la w yers b y m ak in g th e ro unds o n th e n atio nal med ia , o pen ly e x pre ssin g h is g rie f a n d r e g re t a n d s h arin g th e s te p s th e c o m pan y was m ak in g to en su re th e public ’s sa fe ty . Six w eek s afte r th e atta ck s, it in tr o duced n ew , s a fe r p ack ag in g. And th en so m eth in g unex pecte d hap pen ed . T yle n ol’ s m ark et sh are , afte r dro ppin g to z ero a fte r th e a tta ck s, b eg an a s lo w c lim b b ack to p re v io us le v els an d co ntin ued to gro w ; one pundit te rm ed it “th e gre ate st co m eb ack sin ce Lazaru s.” I n e n su in g y ears , T yle n ol’ s r e sp onse h as b eco m e t h e g old s ta n dard f o r han dlin g c o rp ora te c ris is . “W e h ad to m ak e h undre d s o f d ecis io ns o n th e f ly ; h undre d s o f p eo ple m ad e th ousa n ds o f d ecis io ns,” B urk e sa id afte rw ard . “If y ou lo ok b ack , w e d id n’t mak e a n y b ad d ecis io ns, re ally . W e re ally d id n’t. T hose th ousa n ds o f d ecis io ns all h ad a s p le n did c o nsis te n cy a b out t h em , a n d t h at w as t h at t h e p ublic w as g oin g to b e se rv ed fir s t, b ecau se th at’ s w ho w as a t sta k e. S o th e re aso n p eo ple ta lk ab out T yle n ol w hen th e C re d o d is c u ssio ns c o m e u p is th at th e C re d o ra n th at. Becau se t h e h earts a n d m in ds o f t h e p eo ple w ho w ere J & J a n d w ho w ere m ak in g th e d ecis io ns in a w hole s e rie s o f d is p ara te c o m pan ie s… th ey a ll k new w hat to do.” On th e su rfa ce, th e sto ry of th e T yle n ol cris is is ab out a la rg e gro up re sp ondin g to d is a ste r w ith e x tr a o rd in ary c o hesio n a n d fo cu s. B ut b en eath th at sto ry l ie s a c u rio us f a ct: T he k ey t o J o hnso n & J o hnso n’s e x tr a o rd in ary b eh av io r can b e lo cate d in a m undan e o ne-p ag e d ocu m en t. T he 3 11 w ord s o f th e C re d o orie n te d th e th in kin g a n d b eh av io r o f th ousa n ds o f p eo ple a s th ey n av ig ate d a co m ple x l a n dsc ap e o f c h oic es. The d eep er q uestio n is : How c a n a h andfu l o f sim ple , fo rth rig ht se n te n ces make s u ch a d iffe re n ce i n a g ro up’s b eh avio r? — In th e f ir s t tw o s e ctio ns o f th is b ook w e’v e f o cu se d o n s a fe ty a n d v uln era b ility . We’v e se en h ow sm all sig nals — You a re sa fe , W e sh are ris k h ere — co nnect peo ple a n d e n ab le th em to w ork to geth er a s a s in gle e n tity . B ut n ow it’ s tim e to ask : What’ s t h is a ll f o r? W hat a re w e w ork in g t o w ard ? When I vis ite d th e su ccessfu l gro ups, I notic ed th at when ev er th ey co m munic ate d a n yth in g a b out th eir p urp ose o r th eir v alu es, th ey w ere a s s u btle as a p unch i n t h e n ose . I t s ta rte d w ith t h e s u rro undin gs. O ne e x pects m ost g ro ups to fill th eir s u rro undin gs w ith a fe w re m in ders o f th eir m is sio n. T hese g ro ups, how ev er, d id m ore t h an t h at— a l o t m ore . When y ou w alk in to S E A L h ead quarte rs a t D am N eck , V ir g in ia , y ou p ass a tw is te d g ir d er fro m th e W orld T ra d e C en te r b om bin g, a fla g fro m M ogad is h u, an d s o m an y m em oria ls to fa lle n S E A Ls th at it re se m ble s a m ilita ry m use u m . Sim ila rly , w alk in g in to P ix ar’s h ead quarte rs fe els lik e w alk in g in to o ne o f its movie s. F ro m t h e f u ll- s iz e W oody a n d B uzz m ad e o f L EG Os t o t h e t w en ty -fo ot- ta ll L uxo L am p o uts id e t h e e n tr a n ce, e v ery th in g g le am s w ith P ix aria n m ag ic . A s fo r th e U prig ht C itiz en s B rig ad e c o m ed y tr o upe, its b ase m en t th eate r is le ss a th eate r th an a m ak esh if t h all o f fa m e, its w alls p la ste re d w ith p hoto s o f th e Haro ld te am s th at h av e m ad e it b ig . ( Y ou c an s p ot a n ot- y et- fa m ous c ele b rity in alm ost ev ery one.) K IP P sc h ools , th e hig hly su ccessfu l in ner-c ity ch arte r sc h ools , ta k e a sim ila r ap pro ach , nam in g an d deco ra tin g each cla ssro om to sp otlig ht w here t h e t e ach er a tte n ded c o lle g e i n o rd er t o i n sp ir e s tu den ts t o d o t h e sa m e, e v en a d orn in g th e b ath ro om m ir ro rs w ith a n im porta n t q uestio n: Where will Y O U g o t o c o lle g e? What’ s m ore , th e sa m e fo cu s e x is ts w ith in th eir la n guag e. W alk in g a ro und th ese p la ces, y ou t e n d t o h ear t h e s a m e c atc h phra se s a n d m otto es d eliv ere d i n t h e sa m e r h yth m s. T his is s u rp ris in g, s in ce y ou c o uld e asily p re su m e th at P ix aria n s would n ot n eed to b e re m in ded th at Tech nolo gy in sp ir e s a rt, a nd a rt in sp ir e s te ch nolo gy, th at th e S E A Ls w ould n ot n eed to b e r e m in ded th at it’ s im porta n t to Shoot, m ove, a nd c o m munic a te , a n d th at K IP P stu den ts w ould n ot n eed to b e re m in ded t o Work h ard a nd b e n ic e, g iv en th at t h ey s a y t h ese w ord s m an y tim es each d ay . A nd y et th at is w hat th ey d o. T hese g ro ups, w ho b y a ll r ig hts s h ould know w hat th ey s ta n d f o r, d ev ote a s u rp ris in g a m ount o f tim e te llin g th eir o w n sto ry , re m in din g e ach o th er p re cis e ly w hat th ey s ta n d fo r— th en re p eatin g it a d in fin itu m . W hy? The fir s t s te p to w ard a n a n sw er m ig ht b eg in w ith a s m all, o rd in ary -lo okin g so ngbir d c alle d th e s ta rlin g. L ik e o th er b ir d s, s ta rlin gs s o m etim es c o ngre g ate in la rg e flo ck s. W hen th ose flo ck s are th re ate n ed by a pre d ato r lik e a fa lc o n, how ev er, t h ey t r a n sfo rm i n to s o m eth in g m ore . I t’ s c alle d a m urm ura tio n, a n d i t’ s one o f th e m ost b eau tif u l a n d u ncan ny s ig hts in n atu re : a liv in g c lo ud th at s w ir ls an d c h an ges s h ap e a t th e s p eed o f th ought, fo rm in g g ia n t h ourg la sse s, s p ir a ls , an d te n drils th at flo w a cro ss th e sk y lik e a sp ecia l e ffe ct fro m a H arry P otte r movie . A f a lc o n s w oops to w ard a s in gle s ta rlin g, a n d a t th e s a m e in sta n t, o n th e oth er s id e o f th e f lo ck ( th ousa n ds o f b ir d s a w ay ), th e o th er b ir d s in sta n tly s e n se it a n d r e act a s o ne t o f lo w a w ay f ro m t h e d an ger. T he q uestio n, o f c o urs e , i s h ow so m an y bir d s beh av e lik e a sin gle en tity . E arly natu ra lis ts th eo riz ed th at sta rlin gs posse sse d so m e quasi- m ystic al ESP to perc eiv e an d pla n gro up movem en ts . O ne B ritis h sc ie n tis t te rm ed it “te le p ath y”; an oth er calle d it “b io lo gic al r a d io .” The re al re aso n, dem onstr a te d in a 2007 stu dy by a te am of th eo re tic al physic is ts f ro m t h e U niv ers ity o f R om e, i s t h at t h e s ta rlin gs’ c o hesio n i s b uilt o n re le n tle ss a tte n tio n t o a s m all s e t o f s ig nals . B asic ally , e ach s ta rlin g t r a ck s t h e s ix or se v en b ir d s clo se st to it, se n din g an d re ceiv in g cu es o f d ir e ctio n, sp eed , accele ra tio n, an d d is ta n ce. T hat sh are d h ab it o f in te n siv e, u p-c lo se w atc h in g, am plif ie d th ro ugh th e f lo ck , a llo w s th e g ro up to b eh av e a s o ne. I n o th er w ord s, th e re aso n sta rlin g flo ck s can b eh av e so in te llig en tly h as n oth in g to d o w ith te le p ath y o r m ag ic a n d e v ery th in g to d o w ith a s im ple r a b ility : to p ay fo cu se d atte n tio n t o a s m all h an dfu l o f k ey m ark ers . This id ea h elp s g iv e u s a w in dow in to h ow su ccessfu l c u ltu re s c re ate a n d su sta in p urp ose . S uccessfu l g ro u ps a re a ttu ned to th e s a m e tr u th a s th e s ta rlin gs: Purp ose is n ’t a b out ta p pin g in to so m e m ystic al in te rn al d riv e b ut ra th er a b out cre atin g s im ple b eaco ns th at f o cu s a tte n tio n a n d e n gag em en t o n th e s h are d g oal. Successfu l c u ltu re s d o th is b y re le n tle ssly s e ek in g w ay s to te ll a n d re te ll th eir sto ry . T o d o t h is , t h ey b uild w hat w e’ll c all h ig h-p urp ose e n vir o nm en ts . Hig h-p urp ose e n vir o nm en ts a re fille d w ith sm all, v iv id sig nals d esig ned to cre ate a lin k b etw een th e p re se n t m om en t a n d a fu tu re id eal. T hey p ro vid e th e tw o s im ple l o cato rs t h at e v ery n av ig atio n p ro cess r e q uir e s: Here i s w here w e a re an d Here i s w here w e w ant t o g o. T he s u rp ris in g t h in g, f ro m a s c ie n tif ic p oin t o f vie w , i s h ow r e sp onsiv e w e a re t o t h is p atte rn o f s ig nalin g. A f e w y ears a g o a p ro fe sso r o f p sy ch olo gy n am ed G ab rie le O ettin gen s e t o ut to p erfo rm w hat m ig ht ra n k a s th e m ost b asic p sy ch olo gic al e x perim en t o f a ll tim e. I n f a ct, y ou c an d o i t r ig ht n ow . I t g oes l ik e t h is : Ste p 1 : T hin k a b out a re alis tic g oal th at y ou’d lik e to a ch ie v e. It c o uld b e an yth in g: B eco m e s k ille d a t a s p ort, r e d ed ic ate y ours e lf to a r e la tio nsh ip , lo se a fe w p ounds, g et a n ew jo b. S pen d a fe w se co nds re fle ctin g o n th at g oal a n d im ag in in g t h at i t’ s c o m e t r u e. P ic tu re a f u tu re w here y ou’v e a ch ie v ed i t. Got i t? Ste p 2 : T ak e a fe w s e co nds a n d p ic tu re th e o bsta cle s b etw een y ou a n d th at goal a s v iv id ly a s p ossib le . D on’t g lo ss o ver t h e n eg ativ es, b ut t r y t o s e e t h em a s th ey tr u ly a re . F or e x am ple , if y ou w ere tr y in g to lo se w eig ht, y ou m ig ht p ic tu re th ose m om en ts o f w eak ness w hen y ou s m ell w arm c o okie s, a n d y ou d ecid e to eat o ne ( o r t h re e). That’ s it. I t’ s c alle d m en ta l c o ntr a stin g, a n d it s e em s le ss lik e s c ie n ce th an th e kin d o f a d vic e y ou m ig ht c o m e a cro ss o n a la te -n ig ht in fo m erc ia l: Envis io n a re a ch able goal, and en vis io n th e obsta cle s. The th in g is , as O ettin gen dis c o vere d , th is m eth od w ork s, tr ig gerin g sig nif ic an t c h an ges in b eh av io r a n d motiv atio n. In o ne stu dy, ad ole sc en ts p re p arin g fo r th e P SA T w ho u se d th is meth od c h ose to c o m ple te 6 0 p erc en t m ore p ra ctic e q uestio ns th an th e c o ntr o l gro up. In an oth er, d ie te rs co nsu m ed sig nif ic an tly fe w er calo rie s, w ere m ore physic ally a ctiv e, a n d l o st m ore w eig ht. Men ta l co ntr a stin g h as als o b een sh ow n to im pro ve th e ab ility to in te ra ct positiv ely w ith s tr a n gers , n eg otia te d eals , s p eak i n p ublic , m an ag e t im e, i m pro ve co m munic atio n, a n d p erfo rm a ra n ge o f o th er s k ills . A s O ettin gen w ro te , “ T he co njo in t ela b ora tio n of th e fu tu re an d th e pre se n t re ality mak es both sim ulta n eo usly a ccessib le a n d lin ks th em to geth er in th e se n se th at th e re ality sta n ds i n t h e w ay o f r e aliz in g t h e d esir e d f u tu re .” Oettin gen ’s w ork doesn ’t lin e up w ith how w e norm ally th in k ab out motiv atio n an d g oals . W e n orm ally th in k ab out th em as b ein g in tr in sic to a pers o n. P eo ple are eith er m otiv ate d o r th ey ’re n ot; acco rd in gly , w e d esc rib e motiv atio n w ith te rm s lik e desir e o r hea rt . B ut in th ese e x perim en ts , m otiv atio n is n ot a p osse ssio n b ut r a th er th e r e su lt o f a tw o-p art p ro cess o f c h an nelin g y our atte n tio n: Here ’s w here y o u’r e a t a n d Here ’s w here y o u w ant t o g o . That s h are d f u tu re c o uld b e a g oal o r a b eh av io r. ( We p ut c u sto m er s a fe ty f ir st. We sh oot, m ove, and co m munic a te . ) It doesn ’t m atte r. W hat m atte rs is esta b lis h in g th is lin k an d co nsis te n tly cre atin g en gag em en t aro und it. W hat matte rs i s t e llin g t h e s to ry . We te n d to u se th e w ord sto ry casu ally , as if sto rie s an d n arra tiv es w ere ep hem era l deco ra tio ns fo r so m e unch an gin g underly in g re ality . T he deep er neu ro lo gic al tr u th is th at sto rie s d o n ot clo ak re ality b ut cre ate it, tr ig gerin g casc ad es o f p erc ep tio n a n d m otiv atio n. T he p ro of is in b ra in sc an s: W hen w e hear a fa ct, a fe w is o la te d a re as o f o ur b ra in lig ht u p, tr a n sla tin g w ord s a n d mean in gs. W hen w e h ear a s to ry , h ow ev er, o ur b ra in lig hts u p lik e L as V eg as, tr a cin g th e c h ain s o f c au se , e ffe ct, a n d m ean in g. S to rie s a re n ot ju st s to rie s; th ey are th e best in ven tio n ev er cre ate d fo r deliv erin g m en ta l m odels th at driv e beh av io r. Thin k f o r a m om en t a b out th e ju ngle o f d ecis io ns J o hnso n & J o hnso n le ad ers fa ced in th e d ay s afte r th e T yle n ol p ois o nin gs. It is n ot easy to sp en d $ 100 millio n ag ain st th e ad vic e o f fe d era l o ffic ia ls (o r to ex pla in th at d ecis io n to sto ck hold ers a n d a b oard o f tr u ste es). It is n ot e asy to re p urp ose th ousa n ds o f peo ple in to n ew a n d u nfa m ilia r ro le s (o r to e x pla in w hy th ey sh ould e m bra ce th at c h an ge). O ne w ould p re su m e th at th ese d ecis io ns a n d a ctio ns w ould h av e fe lt p ain fu l o r a g oniz in g. And y et B urk e d oesn ’t d esc rib e th em a s p ain fu l o r a g oniz in g. H e d esc rib es th em a s s tr a ig htf o rw ard . “ W ell, I g ot a lo t o f c re d it f o r th at,” h e to ld a r e p orte r. “B ut th e fa ct is m y jo b w as m ad e n ot o nly s im ple , b ut… th ere w asn ’t a n yth in g els e I c o uld h av e d one. E very p ers o n w ho w ork ed f o r J o hnso n & J o hnso n in th e world w as w atc h in g th e p ois o nin gs… .I f w e h ad d one a n yth in g o th er th an w hat we d id , th in k a b out h ow th ose e m plo yees w ould h av e f e lt. I m ean , th e v ery s o ul of t h e c o rp ora tio n w as w atc h in g u s.” In o th er w ord s, B urk e a n d h is t e am f e lt a b it l ik e s ta rlin gs i n a f lo ck f e el. T hey moved a s o ne b ecau se th ey w ere a ttu ned to th e s a m e c le ar s ig nal o f th e C re d o re so natin g th ro ugh th e g ro up. We b elie ve o ur fir st r e sp onsib ility is to d octo rs, nurse s, a nd p atie n ts ; t o m oth ers a nd f a th ers a nd a ll o th ers w ho u se o ur p ro ducts and se rv ic es. T he d if fic u lt c h oic es th ey m ad e w ere n ’t re ally a ll th at d if fic u lt. They w ere c lo se r t o a r e fle x . — The m ain c h alle n ge to u nders ta n din g h ow s to rie s g uid e g ro up b eh av io r is th at sto rie s a re h ard to is o la te . S to rie s a re lik e a ir : e v ery w here a n d n ow here a t th e sa m e t im e. H ow d o y ou m easu re t h e e ffe ct o f a n arra tiv e? Fortu nate ly fo r us, back in 1965, a H arv ard psy ch olo gis t nam ed R obert Rose n th al fo und a w ay . H e a p pro ach ed a C alif o rn ia p ublic e le m en ta ry sc h ool an d o ffe re d to te st th e sc h ool’ s stu den ts w ith a n ew ly d ev elo ped in te llig en ce- id en tif ic atio n to ol, c alle d th e H arv ard T est o f I n fle cte d A cq uis itio n, w hic h c o uld accu ra te ly p re d ic t w hic h c h ild re n w ould e x cel a cad em ic ally in th e c o m in g y ear. The s c h ool n atu ra lly a g re ed , a n d th e te st w as a d m in is te re d to th e e n tir e s tu den t body. A f e w w eek s la te r, te ach ers w ere p ro vid ed w ith th e n am es o f th e c h ild re n (a b out 2 0 p erc en t o f th e s tu den t b ody) w ho h ad te ste d a s h ig h-p ote n tia ls . T hese partic u la r c h ild re n , t h e t e ach ers w ere i n fo rm ed , w ere s p ecia l. T hough t h ey m ig ht not hav e perfo rm ed w ell in th e past, th e te st in dic ate d th at th ey posse sse d “u nusu al p ote n tia l fo r in te lle ctu al g ro w th .” (T he s tu den ts w ere n ot in fo rm ed o f th e t e st r e su lts .) The fo llo w in g y ear R ose n th al re tu rn ed to m easu re h ow th e h ig h-p ote n tia l stu den ts h ad p erfo rm ed . E xactly a s th e te st h ad p re d ic te d , th e f ir s t- a n d s e co nd- gra d e h ig h-p ote n tia ls h ad su cceed ed to a re m ark ab le d eg re e: T he fir s t- g ra d ers gain ed 2 7 I Q p oin ts ( v ers u s 1 2 p oin ts f o r th e r e st o f th e c la ss); a n d th e s e co nd- gra d ers gain ed 17 poin ts (v ers u s 7 poin ts ). In ad ditio n, th e hig h-p ote n tia ls th riv ed in w ay s th at w en t b ey ond m easu re m en t. T hey w ere d esc rib ed b y th eir te ach ers as b ein g m ore cu rio us, h ap pie r, b ette r ad ju ste d , an d m ore lik ely to ex perie n ce s u ccess a s a d ults . W hat’ s m ore , th e te ach ers re p orte d th at th ey h ad en jo yed t e ach in g t h at y ear m ore t h an a n y y ear i n t h e p ast. Here ’s th e tw is t: th e H arv ard T est o f In fle cte d A cq uis itio n w as co m ple te balo ney . In fa ct, th e “ h ig h-p ote n tia ls ” h ad b een se le cte d a t ra n dom . T he re al su bje ct of th e te st w as not th e stu den ts but th e narra tiv es th at driv e th e re la tio nsh ip b etw een t h e t e ach ers a n d t h e s tu den ts . What h ap pen ed , R ose n th al d is c o vere d , w as re p la cin g o ne sto ry — These a re avera ge k id s —with a n ew o ne— These a re s p ecia l k id s, d estin ed to s u cceed — se rv ed a s a lo cato r b eaco n th at re o rie n te d th e te ach ers , c re atin g a c asc ad e o f beh av io rs th at g uid ed th e stu den t to w ard th at fu tu re . It d id n’t m atte r th at th e sto ry w as f a ls e , o r t h at t h e c h ild re n w ere , i n f a ct, r a n dom ly s e le cte d . T he s im ple , glo w in g id ea— This c h ild h as u nusu al p ote n tia l fo r in te lle ctu al g ro w th —alig ned motiv atio ns, aw are n ess, an d b eh av io rs . R ose n th al cla ssif ie d th e ch an ges in to fo ur c ate g orie s. 1. Warm th ( th e t e ach ers w ere k in der, m ore a tte n tiv e, a n d m ore c o nnectiv e) 2. In put ( th e t e ach ers p ro vid ed m ore m ate ria l f o r l e arn in g) 3. Resp onse -o pportu nity ( th e t e ach ers c alle d o n t h e s tu den ts m ore o fte n , a n d lis te n ed m ore c are fu lly ) 4. Feed back ( th e t e ach ers p ro vid ed m ore , e sp ecia lly w hen t h e s tu den t m ad e a mis ta k e) The in te re stin g th in g a b out th ese c h an ges is h ow s m all th ey a re , c o nsis tin g o f th ousa n ds of tin y beh av io rs over th e sc h ool year. E very tim e th e te ach er in te ra cte d w ith t h e s tu den t, a c o nnectio n l it u p i n t h e t e ach er’s b ra in b etw een t h e pre se n t an d th e fu tu re . E ach tim e th e stu den t d id so m eth in g am big uous, th e te ach er g av e th e s tu den t th e b en efit o f th e d oubt. E ach tim e th e s tu den t m ad e a mis ta k e, th e te ach er pre su m ed th at th e stu den t need ed bette r fe ed back . B y th em se lv es, each of th ese beh av io rs m ean t little . T ogeth er, th ey cre ate d a vir tu ous s p ir a l th at h elp ed s tu den ts th riv e in w ay s th at e x ceed ed th eir s o -c alle d lim its . This v ir tu ous s p ir a l c an b e s p ark ed b y o th er m eth ods a s w ell. A g ood e x am ple was use d in an ex perim en t by A dam G ra n t, an au th or an d org an iz atio nal psy ch olo gis t a t th e W harto n S ch ool o f th e U niv ers ity o f P en nsy lv an ia , w hose work w e e n co unte re d in C hap te r 6 . A fe w y ears b ack G ra n t w as a sk ed b y th e Univ ers ity of M ic h ig an to lo ok in to th e lo w perfo rm an ce of its call cen te r work ers w ho p honed u niv ers ity a lu m ni a n d a sk ed th em to d onate m oney . T he work w as re p etitiv e an d te d io us, an d th e re je ctio n ra te sto od at a so lid 93 perc en t. T he u niv ers ity h ad tr ie d se v era l in cen tiv es to im pro ve p erfo rm an ce, su ch a s p riz es a n d c o nte sts , t o n o a v ail. Gra n t k new th at so m e o f th e m oney ra is e d a t th e c all c en te r w en t to w ard sc h ola rs h ip s. H e w ondere d i f t h e w ork ers w ould b e m ore m otiv ate d i f t h ey k new more a b out th e re al- w orld u se s o f th at m oney . S o h e tr a ck ed d ow n o ne o f th e sc h ola rs h ip re cip ie n ts , a stu den t n am ed W ill, a n d a sk ed h im to w rite a le tte r ab out w hat h is s c h ola rs h ip m ean t t o h im . H ere i s a n e x cerp t: When i t c am e d ow n t o m ak in g t h e d ecis io n, I d is c o vere d t h at t h e out- o f-s ta te t u itio n w as q uite e x pen siv e. B ut t h is u niv ers ity i s i n m y blo od. M y g ra n dpare n ts m et h ere . M y d ad a n d h is f o ur b ro th ers a ll wen t h ere . I e v en o w e m y y ounger b ro th er t o t h is s c h ool— he w as co nceiv ed t h e n ig ht w e w on t h e N CA A b ask etb all t o urn am en t. A ll my l if e I h av e d re am ed o f c o m in g h ere . I w as e csta tic t o r e ceiv e t h e sc h ola rs h ip , a n d I c am e t o s c h ool r e ad y t o t a k e f u ll a d van ta g e o f t h e opportu nitie s i t a ffo rd ed m e. T he s c h ola rs h ip h as i m pro ved m y l if e in m an y w ay s. Afte r G ra n t sh are d W ill’ s le tte r w ith th e call cen te r w ork ers , he sa w an im med ia te b oost in c alls a n d d onatio ns. S o h e to ok th e n ex t s te p . R ath er th an mere ly r e ad c all c en te r w ork ers a le tte r, G ra n t b ro ught in s c h ola rs h ip r e cip ie n ts fo r in -p ers o n v is its . T he v is its la ste d f iv e m in ute s. T hey w ere n ’t c o m ple x ; e ach stu den t s h are d th eir s to ry a s W ill h ad d one: Here ’s w here I c a m e fr o m . H ere ’s what th e m oney r a is e d b y y o ur w ork m ea ns to m e . O ver th e n ex t m onth , tim e sp en t c allin g in cre ase d 1 42 p erc en t, a n d w eek ly r e v en ues in cre ase d 1 72 p erc en t. The in cen tiv es h ad n’t c h an ged . T he ta sk h ad n’t c h an ged . A ll th at h ad c h an ged was t h e f a ct t h at t h e w ork ers h ad r e ceiv ed a c le ar b eaco n o f p urp ose , a n d i t m ad e all t h e d if fe re n ce. What h ap pen ed in R ose n th al’ s a n d G ra n t’ s e x perim en ts is n o d if fe re n t fro m what h ap pen ed w hen J o hnso n & J o hnso n g ath ere d to c h alle n ge th e C re d o. T hey cre ate d a h ig h-p urp ose e n vir o nm en t, flo oded th e z o ne w ith s ig nals th at lin ked th e pre se n t effo rt to a m ean in gfu l fu tu re , an d use d a sin gle sto ry to orie n t motiv atio n th e w ay th at a m ag netic f ie ld o rie n ts a c o m pass n eed le to tr u e n orth : This i s w hy w e w ork . H ere i s w here y o u s h ould p ut y o ur e n erg y. In th e n ex t c h ap te r, w e’ll fo cu s o n re al- w orld w ay s in w hic h h ig h-p urp ose en vir o nm en ts are esta b lis h ed an d nurtu re d . A nd a good w ay to beg in is to ex am in e tw o c ase s w here th ose e n vir o nm en ts w ere b uilt a g ain st th e o dds. T he fir s t in volv es an in novativ e atte m pt to co ntr o l so m e of th e m ost dan gero us so ccer h oolig an s o n t h e p la n et. T he s e co nd i n volv es t e am s o f d octo rs l e arn in g t o perfo rm a r e v olu tio nary s u rg ic al i n novatio n. T am in g th e H oolig ans P ortu gal w as a b out t o g et w re ck ed . It w as th e ev e o f th e 2 004 E uro pean C ham pio nsh ip s, an ev ery -fo ur-y ears s o ccer t o urn am en t t h at r a n ks s e co nd o nly t o t h e W orld C up i n s iz e a n d s p ecta cle . H undre d s o f th ousa n ds o f fa n s w ere s tr e am in g to w ard s p ark lin g v en ues a cro ss t h is s u nny n atio n. F or P ortu gal, th is w as a b ig m om en t, its c o m in g-o ut p arty o n t h e w orld sp ortin g sta g e. T here w as ju st o ne p ro ble m , an d it w as th e sa m e p ro ble m th at has sh ad ow ed Euro pean so ccer fo r decad es: Englis h so ccer h oolig an s. The P ortu guese org an iz ers knew w hat th ey w ere up ag ain st becau se th e p re v io us c h am pio nsh ip s, h eld f o ur y ears e arlie r i n B elg iu m , h ad p ro vid ed a v iv id l e sso n. T he B elg ia n polic e had pre p are d w ell fo r th e hoolig an s, sp en din g m illio ns tr a in in g th eir fo rc e an d eq uip pin g th em se lv es w ith th e b est an tir io t e q uip m en t, s u rv eilla n ce c am era s, a n d in fo rm atio n s y ste m s a v aila b le . T hey h ad w ork ed clo se ly w ith th e Britis h govern m en t to id en tif y an d bar know n t r o uble m ak ers fro m e n te rin g th e c o untr y . In s h ort, th ey h ad b een a s re ad y a s it w as p ossib le to b e. A nd n one o f it h ad h elp ed . T housa n ds o f E nglis h h oolig an s, s h ow in g th e so rt o f u nif ie d re so lv e th eir te am h as h is to ric ally la ck ed , ro am ed w ild , sm ash in g sh op w in dow s, b eatin g u p b ysta n ders , a n d b attlin g rio t p olic e w ie ld in g b ato ns, fir e h ose s, a n d te ar g as. B y to urn am en t’ s e n d, m ore th an o ne t h ousa n d E nglis h su pporte rs w ere arre ste d , to urn am en t o rg an iz ers co nsid ere d b an is h in g th e E nglis h te am fro m th e to urn am en t, a n d p undits w ere w onderin g w heth er i n te rn atio nal t o urn am en ts m ig ht b e a t h in g o f t h e p ast. Acco rd in g to m ost so cia l sc ie n tis ts , th is re ality w as both lo gic al an d his to ric ally unav oid ab le , as Englis h hoolig an s em bodie d th e w ork in g-c la ss ag gre ssio n k now n a s th e E nglis h D is e ase . D ecad es o f e x perie n ce sh ow ed th at th e dis e ase co uld not be cu re d , only its sy m pto m s co ntr o lle d . A s th e 2004 to urn am en t a p pro ach ed , rio ts se em ed in ev ita b le . A s o ne E nglis h w rite r p ut it, su nny P ortu gal w as a b out to b eco m e th e ta rg et o f th e “ b ig gest E nglis h in vasio n sin ce D -D ay .” T o p re p are , th e P ortu guese g overn m en t p urc h ase d $ 21 m illio n o f rio t- c o ntr o l to ols : w ate r c an nons, tr u nch eo ns, p ep per s p ra y , a n d p olic e d ogs. It als o lo oked at n ew ap pro ach es, in clu din g th e w ork o f an o bsc u re L iv erp ool Univ ers ity s o cia l p sy ch olo gis t n am ed C lif fo rd S to tt. Sto tt is a p la in sp oken , c re w -c u t m an w ho s p ecia liz es in c ro w d v io le n ce. H e stu die d th e L os A ngele s r io ts o f 1 992 a n d th e U .K . p oll ta x r io ts o f 1 990, a n d a s th e 2 004 c h am pio nsh ip s a p pro ach ed , h e w as w ork in g o n a n ew th eo ry th at h ad le ss to d o w ith th e fo rc es o f s o cia l h is to ry th an w ith s o cia l c u es. H is id ea w as th at it w as p ossib le to s to p c ro w d v io le n ce b y c h an gin g th e s ig nals th e p olic e were tr a n sm ittin g. In his vie w , rio t gear an d arm ore d cars w ere cu es th at activ ate d hoolig an beh av io r in fa n s w ho m ig ht oth erw is e beh av e norm ally . (N in ety -fiv e p erc en t o f th e p eo ple arre ste d fo r so ccer v io le n ce, h is re se arc h sh ow ed , h ad n o p rio r h is to ry o f d is o rd erly c o nduct.) S to tt b elie v ed th at th e k ey to p olic in g r io ts w as t o e sse n tia lly s to p p olic in g r io ts . Sto tt’ s early tr ia ls of his m odel w ere su ffic ie n tly co m pellin g, an d th e Portu guese a u th oritie s w ere su ffic ie n tly d esp era te , th at S to tt fo und h im se lf , to his e v erla stin g s u rp ris e , in c h arg e o f a h ig h-s ta k es e x perim en t: C ould th e m ost dan gero us s o ccer h oolig an s i n t h e w orld b e s to pped b y a h an dfu l o f s o cia l c u es? Fir s t, S to tt s e t a b out tr a in in g th e P ortu guese p olic e. R ule n um ber o ne w as to keep all rio t g ear o ut o f sig ht: n o p hala n xes o f h elm ete d co ps, n o arm ore d veh ic le s, n o rio t sh ie ld s an d b ato ns. In ste ad , S to tt tr a in ed a cre w o f lia is o n offic ers w ho w ore lig ht- b lu e vests in ste ad of th e cu sto m ary yello w . T hese offic ers w ere s e le cte d n ot fo r th eir rio t c o ntr o l s k ills b ut fo r th eir s o cia l s k ills : frie n dlin ess a n d a b ility t o b an te r. S to tt e n co ura g ed t h em t o s tu dy u p o n t h e t e am s an d f a n s a n d g et g ood a t m ak in g s m all t a lk a b out t h e c o ach es, o n-fie ld s tr a te g ie s, an d te am g ossip . “ W e s o ught o ut p eo ple w ho h ad th e g if t o f th e g ab ,” h e s a y s, “w ho co uld th ro w th eir arm aro und so m eo ne an d ch at w ith th em ab out an yth in g.” The b ig ger ch alle n ge fo r S to tt w as re w ir in g p olic e in stin cts . T he E nglis h hoolig an s h ad a h ab it o f k ic k in g s o ccer b alls in p ublic p la ces, b ootin g th e b all hig h in to th e a ir a n d d ow n o nto th e h ead s a n d c afé ta b le s o f b ysta n ders , th us ig nitin g th e kin d of sm all- s c ale co nfro nta tio ns of w hic h rio ts are born . Conven tio nal p olic e p ro ced ure is to im med ia te ly an d fo rc ib ly in te rv en e an d co nfis c ate th e b all b efo re a n y o pen fig htin g b re ak s o ut. B ut o n S to tt’ s a d vic e, Portu guese o ffic ers w ere in str u cte d to d o s o m eth in g m ore d if fic u lt: to w ait u ntil th e h oolig an s k ic k ed th e b all w ith in re ach o f th e p olic e. T hen a n d o nly th en co uld t h e p olic e t a k e t h e b all a n d k eep i t. “Y ou h av e to p la y b y th e s h are d ru le s,” S to tt s a y s. “ T he p olic e c an ’t ju st g o ta k e th e b all, b ecau se th at’ s p re cis e ly th e k in d o f d is p ro portio n ate u se o f fo rc e th at c re ate s t h e p ro ble m . I f y ou w ait u ntil t h e b all c o m es t o y ou a n d s im ply h an g on t o i t, t h e c ro w d s e es i t a s l e g itim ate .” To so m e P ortu guese polic e, S to tt’ s id eas so unded illo gic al if not in sa n e. Sev era l pro te ste d , sa y in g th at fa cin g gan gs of vio le n t hoolig an s w ith out pro te ctiv e a rm or w as re ck le ss. B y th e tim e th e to urn am en t a rriv ed , th e E nglis h pre ss had deris iv ely te rm ed th e pro gra m “H ug-A -T hug.” T he sp ortin g an d sc ie n tif ic w orld s w aite d d oubtf u lly t o s e e i f S to tt’ s m eth od w ould w ork . It w ork ed . M ore t h an o ne m illio n f a n s v is ite d t h e c o untr y o ver t h e t h re e-w eek – lo ng to urn am en t, a n d in a re as th at u se d S to tt’ s a p pro ach , o nly o ne E nglis h fa n was arre ste d . O bse rv ers re co rd ed tw o th ousa n d cro w d-p olic e in te ra ctio ns, o f whic h o nly 0 .4 p erc en t q ualif ie d a s d is o rd erly . T he o nly in cid en ts o f v io le n ce occu rre d in a n a re a th at w as p olic ed a cco rd in g to th e o ld -fa sh io ned h elm et- a n d- sh ie ld s y ste m . In th e e n su in g y ears , S to tt’ s a p pro ach h as b eco m e th e m odel fo r c o ntr o llin g sp ort- re la te d v io le n ce in E uro pe a n d a ro und th e g lo be. O ne o f th e re aso ns it work s is th at it c re ate s a h ig h-p urp ose e n vir o nm en t b y d eliv erin g a n u nbro ken arra y o f c o nsis te n t little s ig nals . E very tim e a n o ffic er b an te rs w ith a f a n , e v ery tim e a f a n n otic es th e la ck o f p ro te ctiv e a rm or, a s ig nal is s e n t: We a re h ere to get alo ng . E very tim e th e polic e allo w fa n s to keep kic k in g th e ball, th ey re in fo rc e th at s ig nal. B y th em se lv es, n one o f th e s ig nals m atte r. T ogeth er th ey build a n ew s to ry . For S to tt, th e m ost re v ealin g m om en t in P ortu gal c am e h alf w ay th ro ugh th e to urn am en t w hen a y ello w -v este d P ortu guese p olic em an h ad a n e n co unte r w ith an o verly e x ubera n t E nglis h fa n . T he p olic em an tr ie d to c alm th e fa n ; th e fa n re sis te d , a n d t h en t h e p olic em an r e fle x iv ely u se d f o rc e, g ra b bin g t h e f a n r o ughly . A r ip ple o f e n erg y m oved t h ro ugh th e c ro w d; p eo ple s h oute d a n d p ush ed . I t w as ex actly th e k in d o f situ atio n S to tt fe are d m ost: a sin gle o veru se o f fo rc e th at co uld c au se a d is a str o us s p ir a l. But th at d id n’t h ap pen . I n ste ad , th e f a n s s h oute d o ut to o ne o f th e b lu e-v este d lia is o n o ffic ers . “ T he fa n s c alle d o ver to th e lia is o n a n d sa id , ‘H ey , c an y ou co m e a n d s o rt th is p olic em an o ut f o r u s? ’   ” S to tt s a y s. “ T he r o le s h ad r e v ers e d , an d th e fa n s w ere polic in g th e polic e. T hey had so cia lly bonded w ith th e lia is o ns. T hey s a w t h em a s t h eir a d vocate .” The F aste st L earn ers One o f th e b est m easu re s o f a n y g ro up’s c u ltu re is its le arn in g v elo city — how quic k ly it im pro ves its p erfo rm an ce o f a n ew s k ill. In 1 998, a te am o f H arv ard re se arc h ers le d b y A m y E dm ondso n (w hom w e m et in C hap te r 1 ) tr a ck ed th e le arn in g v elo city o f six te en su rg ic al te am s le arn in g to p erfo rm a n ew h eart su rg ery te ch niq ue. T he te ch niq ue w as c alle d M IC S, m in im ally in vasiv e c ard ia c su rg ery , an d it in volv ed p erfo rm in g co ro nary arte ry b ypass g ra fts an d v alv e re p air s th ro ugh a s m all c h est in cis io n ra th er th an b y s a w in g th e b re astb one in half . E ach o f th e six te en te am s to ok th e id en tic al th re e-d ay tr a in in g p ro gra m , th en re tu rn ed to th eir hosp ita ls an d sta rte d perfo rm in g th e pro ced ure . T he questio n w as, w hic h t e am w ould l e arn t h e f a ste st a n d m ost e ffe ctiv ely ? At th e o uts e t, th e C hels e a H osp ita l te am lo oked lik e it w ould w in . * C hels e a was a n e lite te ach in g h osp ita l in a m etr o polita n a re a. Its c ard ia c s u rg ery te am was le d by D r. C , a natio nally re co gniz ed ex pert w ho had been in volv ed desig nin g th e M IC S te ch nolo gy a n d w ho h ad a lr e ad y p erfo rm ed m ore th an s ix ty pro ced ure s u sin g th e m eth od. In a d ditio n, C hels e a h ad a s tr o ng o rg an iz atio nal co m mitm en t to th e n ew p ro ced ure , w hic h it d em onstr a te d b y se n din g se v era l dep artm en t h ead s t o t h e t r a in in g c o urs e . At th e o th er e n d o f th e s c ale w as th e te am fro m M ounta in M ed ic al C en te r, whic h w as s m alle r, n ot a t e ach in g i n stitu tio n, a n d l o cate d i n a r u ra l a re a. I ts t e am was le d b y D r. M , a y oung s u rg eo n w ho h ad n ev er d one th e M IC S p ro ced ure an d w ho h ad a s im ila rly i n ex perie n ced t e am a ro und h im . If y ou h ad to p re d ic t w hic h te am w ould p erfo rm b ette r, C hels e a w ould b e th e lo gic al c h oic e. I t h ad m ore e x pertis e , m ore e x perie n ce, a n d m ore o rg an iz atio nal su pport t h an M ounta in M ed ic al. B ut a s i t t u rn ed o ut, C hels e a’s t e am d id n ot w in . To t h e c o ntr a ry : I t w as s lo w er t o l e arn , a n d i ts s k ill ( m easu re d b y t h e t im e i t t o ok to su ccessfu lly co m ple te th e M IC S su rg ery ) pla te au ed afte r te n pro ced ure s. What’ s m ore , th e te am m em bers w ere n ’t h ap py: In in te rv ie w s a fte rw ard , th ey re p orte d fe elin g dis sa tis fie d . A fte r six m onth s, C hels e a ra n ked te n th out of six te en t e am s. The M ounta in M ed ic al te am , o n th e o th er h an d, le arn ed f a st a n d w ell. B y th e fif th s u rg ery , its m em bers w ere a lr e ad y fa ste r th an C hels e a’s to p m ark . B y th e tw en tie th p ro ced ure , M ounta in M ed ic al w as c o m ple tin g su ccessfu l su rg erie s a fu ll h our fa ste r th an C hels e a a n d, m ore im porta n t, w as re p ortin g h ig h ra te s o f effic ie n cy a n d s a tis fa ctio n. A fte r s ix m onth s, M ounta in M ed ic al ra n ked s e co nd out o f t h e s ix te en t e am s. This fe ast- o r-fa m in e patte rn w asn ’t uniq ue to th ese tw o hosp ita ls . W hen Edm ondso n p lo tte d th e re su lts , sh e fo und th at h osp ita ls fe ll in to tw o g ro ups: te am s th at h ad h ig h su ccess a n d te am s th at h ad lo w su ccess. It w asn ’t a b ell cu rv e; it w as m ore lik e a s p lit s c re en . T eam s w ere e ith er lik e M ounta in M ed ic al or l ik e C hels e a; t h ey e ith er c lic k ed o r t h ey d id n’t. W hy? The a n sw er, E dm ondso n d is c o vere d , la y in th e p atte rn s o f re al- tim e sig nals th ro ugh w hic h th e te am m em bers w ere c o nnecte d (o r n ot) w ith th e p urp ose o f th e w ork . T hese s ig nals c o nsis te d o f f iv e b asic t y pes: 1. Fra m in g : S uccessfu l t e am s c o ncep tu aliz ed M IC S a s a l e arn in g e x perie n ce th at w ould b en efit p atie n ts a n d t h e h osp ita l. U nsu ccessfu l t e am s co ncep tu aliz ed M IC S a s a n a d d-o n t o e x is tin g p ra ctic es. 2. Role s : S uccessfu l t e am s w ere e x plic itly t o ld b y t h e t e am l e ad er w hy t h eir in div id ual a n d c o lle ctiv e s k ills w ere i m porta n t f o r t h e t e am ’s s u ccess, a n d why i t w as i m porta n t f o r t h em t o p erfo rm a s a t e am . U nsu ccessfu l t e am s were n ot. 3. Reh ea rsa l : S uccessfu l t e am s d id e la b ora te d ry r u ns o f t h e p ro ced ure , pre p arin g i n d eta il, e x pla in in g t h e n ew p ro to co ls , a n d t a lk in g a b out co m munic atio n. U nsu ccessfu l t e am s t o ok m in im al s te p s t o p re p are . 4. Exp lic it e n co ura gem en t t o s p ea k u p : S uccessfu l t e am s w ere t o ld b y t e am le ad ers t o s p eak u p i f t h ey s a w a p ro ble m ; t h ey w ere a ctiv ely c o ach ed th ro ugh t h e f e ed back p ro cess. T he l e ad ers o f u nsu ccessfu l t e am s d id l ittle co ach in g, a n d a s a r e su lt t e am m em bers w ere h esita n t t o s p eak u p. 5. Activ e r e fle ctio n: B etw een s u rg erie s, s u ccessfu l t e am s w en t o ver perfo rm an ce, d is c u sse d f u tu re c ase s, a n d s u ggeste d i m pro vem en ts . F or ex am ple , t h e t e am l e ad er a t M ounta in M ed ic al w ore a h ead -m ounte d cam era d urin g s u rg ery t o h elp f a cilita te d is c u ssio n a n d f e ed back . Unsu ccessfu l t e am s t e n ded n ot t o d o t h is . Note w hat fa cto rs are not on th is lis t: ex perie n ce, su rg eo n sta tu s, an d org an iz atio nal s u pport. T hese q ualitie s m atte re d f a r le ss th an th e s im ple , s te ad y puls e of re al- tim e sig nals th at ch an nele d atte n tio n to w ard th e la rg er goal. Som etim es th ose s ig nals in volv ed th e h osp ita l ( MIC S is a n im porta nt le a rn in g opportu nity ); s o m etim es th e p atie n t ( Patie n ts w ill b en efit ); s o m etim es th e te am mem ber ( You h ave a r o le a nd a fu tu re w ith th is te a m ); s o m etim es th ey p la ced valu e o n r e h ears a l o r r e fle ctio n. B ut th ey a ll p erfo rm ed th e s a m e v ita l f u nctio n: to f lo od t h e e n vir o nm en t w ith n arra tiv e l in ks b etw een w hat t h ey w ere d oin g n ow an d w hat i t m ean t. The o th er fe atu re o f th is lis t is th at m an y o f th ese sig nals c o uld e asily b e vie w ed as obvio us an d re d undan t. For in sta n ce, do hig hly ex perie n ced pro fe ssio nals lik e n urs e s a n d a n esth esio lo gis ts re ally n eed to b e e x plic itly to ld th at th eir ro le in a ca rd ia c su rg ery is im porta n t? D o th ey re ally n eed to b e in fo rm ed th at if th ey s e e th e s u rg eo n m ak e a m is ta k e, th ey m ig ht w an t to s p eak up? The an sw er, as E dm ondso n d is c o vere d , is a th underin g y es. T he v alu e o f th ose s ig nals i s n ot i n t h eir i n fo rm atio n b ut i n t h e f a ct t h at t h ey o rie n t t h e t e am t o th e ta sk a n d to o ne a n oth er. W hat s e em s lik e re p etitio n is , in fa ct, n av ig atio n. Those s ig nals a d ded u p in a w ay th at y ou c an h ear in te am m em bers ’ v oic es. Lis te n t o t h ese q uote s f ro m t h e s u ccessfu l t e am s: [S urg eo n] “ T he a b ility o f t h e s u rg eo n t o a llo w h im se lf t o b eco m e a partn er, n ot a d ic ta to r, i s c ritic al. F or e x am ple , y ou r e ally d o h av e t o ch an ge w hat y ou’re d oin g [ d urin g a n o pera tio n] b ase d o n a su ggestio n f ro m s o m eo ne e ls e o n t h e t e am .” [N urs e ] “ W e a ll h av e t o s h are t h e k now le d ge. F or e x am ple , i n t h e la st c ase , w e n eed ed t o i n se rt a g uid ew ir e , a n d I g ra b bed t h e w ro ng wir e a n d I d id n’t r e co gniz e i t a t f ir s t. A nd m y c ir c u la tin g n urs e s a id , ‘S ue, y ou g ra b bed t h e w ro ng w ir e .’ T his s h ow s h ow m uch t h e dif fe re n t r o le s d on’t m atte r. W e a ll h av e t o k now a b out e v ery th in g. You h av e t o w ork a s a t e am .” [N urs e ] “ E very t im e w e a re g oin g t o d o a [ M IC S] p ro ced ure I f e el lik e I ’v e b een e n lig hte n ed . I c an s e e t h ese p atie n ts d oin g s o well… .I t i s s u ch a r e w ard in g e x perie n ce. I a m s o g ra te fu l I w as pic k ed .” Now l is te n t o t h ese q uote s f ro m t h e u nsu ccessfu l t e am s: [S urg eo n] “ O nce I g et a t e am s e t u p, I n ev er l o ok u p [ fro m t h e opera tin g f ie ld ]. I t’ s t h ey w ho h av e t o m ak e s u re e v ery th in g i s flo w in g.” [A nesth esio lo gis t] “ I w ould n’t s p eak u p i f I w ere n ’t c o nfid en t t h at a mis ta k e w ould l e ad t o a n a d vers e o utc o m e. I ’m n ot c o m fo rta b le hypoth esiz in g.” [N urs e ] “ If I s e e a M IC S c ase o n t h e l is t [ fo r t o m orro w ] I t h in k ‘O h! D o w e r e ally h av e t o d o i t? J u st g et m e a f re sh b la d e s o I c an sla sh m y w ris ts r ig ht n ow .’   ” These v oic es s o und lik e th ey a re c o m in g f ro m d if fe re n t u niv ers e s. I ro nic ally , both w ere d oin g t h e e x act s a m e p ro ced ure w ith t h e e x act s a m e t r a in in g. T he o nly dif fe re n ce w as th at o ne g ro up r e ceiv ed c le ar b eaco ns o f m ean in g th ro ughout th e pro cess, a n d th e o th er d id n’t. T he d if fe re n ce w asn ’t in w ho th ey w ere b ut in th e se t o f s m all, a tte n tiv e, c o nsis te n t lin ks b etw een w here th ey a re n ow a n d w here th ey a re h ead ed . This is th e w ay h ig h-p urp ose e n vir o nm en ts w ork . T hey a re a b out s e n din g n ot so m uch o ne b ig s ig nal a s a h an dfu l o f s te ad y, u ltr a -c le ar s ig nals t h at a re a lig ned with a sh are d goal. T hey are le ss ab out bein g in sp ir in g th an ab out bein g co nsis te n t. T hey a re f o und n ot w ith in b ig s p eech es s o m uch a s w ith in e v ery day mom en ts w hen p eo ple c an s e n se th e m essa g e: This is w hy w e w ork ; th is is w hat we a re a im in g f o r . Now th at we’v e esta b lis h ed th e basic mech an is m of hig h-p urp ose en vir o nm en ts , le t’ s ex plo re th e n ex t q uestio n: How d o yo u cre a te o ne? T he an sw er, it tu rn s o ut, d ep en ds o n th e ty pe o f sk ills y ou w an t y our g ro up to perfo rm . Hig h-p ro fic ie n cy en vir o nm en ts h elp a g ro up d eliv er a w ell- d efin ed , re lia b le p erfo rm an ce, w hile hig h-c re a tiv ity en vir o nm en ts h elp a g ro up cre ate so m eth in g n ew . T his d is tin ctio n is im porta n t b ecau se it h ig hlig hts th e tw o b asic ch alle n ges f a cin g a n y g ro up: c o nsis te n cy a n d in novatio n. A nd a s w e’re a b out to se e, b uild in g p urp ose i n t h ese t w o a re as r e q uir e s d if fe re n t a p pro ach es. * The n am es o f t h e h osp ita ls a n d d octo rs w ere a lte re d i n t h e s tu dy. W hen y ou th in k o f th e p la n et’ s m ost ch alle n gin g en vir o nm en ts , y ou te n d to e n vis io n p la ces lik e D eath V alle y o r A nta rc tic a: u nfo rg iv in g la n dsc ap es th at r e le n tle ssly ex pose w eak ness. Y ou don’t te n d to th in k of th e N ew Y ork r e sta u ra n t s c en e. T hat i s , u ntil y ou c o nsid er t h e s u rv iv al r a te s. Each y ear a ro und a th ousa n d n ew r e sta u ra n ts o pen in N ew Y ork C ity . A ll a re l a u nch ed w ith o ptim is m , c o nfid en ce, a n d h ig h h opes f o r s u ccess. F iv e y ears l a te r e ig ht h undre d o f th em h av e v an is h ed w ith out a tr a ce, fo r v ario us re aso ns th at a re , in esse n ce, th e sa m e re aso n. A su ccessfu l re sta u ra n t, lik e a su ccessfu l A nta rc tic ex ped itio n, dep en ds on cease le ss pro fic ie n cy . G ood fo od is not e n ough. G ood lo catio n is not en ough. G ood se rv ic e, tr a in in g, bra n din g, l e ad ers h ip , a d ap ta b ility , a n d l u ck a re n ot e n ough. S urv iv al d ep en ds o n p uttin g a ll o f i t t o geth er, n ig ht a fte r n ig ht. I f y ou f a il, y ou d is a p pear. With in t h is u nfo rg iv in g e co sy ste m , D an ny M ey er h as b uilt a r e co rd t h at i s n ot a s u nlik ely as it is in co nceiv ab le . O ver th e p ast th ir ty y ears , h e h as o pen ed t w en ty -fiv e re sta u ra n ts . E xcep t fo r o ne, th ey a re a ll s u ccessfu l— an d n ot ju st a l ittle b it. U nio n S quare C afe , M ey er’s fir s t re sta u ra n t, h as w on th e to p s p ot in Z agat ’s best- re sta u ra n t ra n kin gs an unpre ced en te d nin e tim es; his oth er r e sta u ra n ts ro utin ely o ccu py a s m uch a s a q uarte r o f th e to p tw en ty , a n d h is r e sta u ra n ts a n d c h efs h av e w on tw en ty -s ix J a m es B eard a w ard s. P erh ap s m ore i m pre ssiv ely , e ach o f M ey er’s re sta u ra n ts is u niq ue, v ary in g fro m a ta v ern to a b arb ecu e jo in t, to an Ita lia n café , to a fa st- c asu al b urg er ch ain calle d S hak e S hack t h at i s n ow w orth $ 1.5 b illio n. The r e aso n M ey er’s r e sta u ra n ts a re s u ccessfu l is th e w arm , c o nnectiv e f e elin g t h ey c re ate , a f e elin g t h at c an b e s u m med u p i n o ne w ord : hom e . W hen y ou w alk in to a M ey er re sta u ra n t, y ou fe el th at y ou are b ein g care d fo r. T his fe elin g ra d ia te s f ro m t h e s u rro undin gs a n d t h e f o od b ut m ost o f a ll f ro m t h e p eo ple , w ho ap pro ach e ach in te ra ctio n w ith fa m ilia l th oughtf u ln ess. W hen I a sk ed M ey er’s guests a n d e m plo yees f o r e x am ple s o f m om en ts w here th is f e elin g w as c re ate d , th ey o ffe re d t h e f o llo w in g t w o s to rie s. A y oung w om an , re cen tly m oved to N ew Y ork fro m th e M id w est, to ok h er pare n ts o ut t o d in ner a t 1 1 M ad is o n P ark t o c ele b ra te h er n ew s ta rt i n t h e b ig c ity —an d to a lla y h er p are n ts ’ fe ars a b out th e d if fic u ltie s o f liv in g in N ew Y ork . Tow ard th e en d o f d in ner, as th ey lo oked o ver th e d esse rt m en u, th e fa th er poin te d to a f o rty -tw o-d olla r g la ss o f d esse rt w in e c alle d C hâte au d ’Y quem a n d co m men te d o n h ow i n sa n ely e x pen siv e N ew Y ork w as. T he w aite r o verh eard t h e fa th er’s c o m men t a n d, m om en ts la te r, re ap peare d c arry in g a b ottle o f C hâte au d’Y quem an d th re e g la sse s. T he w aite r sa id , “W e are so g ra te fu l y ou cam e to nig ht. I h eard y ou t a lk in g a b out t h e C hâte au d ’Y quem . T his i s o ne o f t h e r a re st an d b est d esse rt w in es i n t h e e n tir e w orld , a n d w e w ould l o ve t o o ffe r y ou e ach a ta ste w ith o ur c o m plim en ts .” A s m all e x plo sio n o f s u rp ris e a n d d elig ht e n su ed . Then th ere w as th e tim e a d in in g c o m pan io n o f N eb ra sk a s e n ato r B ob K erre y fo und a b eetle in h is sa la d a t G ra m erc y T av ern . T he n ex t d ay K erre y a n d h is frie n ds w ere e atin g a t a n oth er o f M ey er’s r e sta u ra n ts . A fte r th ey w ere s e ate d , a sa la d a rriv ed g arn is h ed w ith a s m all p ie ce o f p ap er o n w hic h t h e w ord Rin go w as writte n . T he w aite r s a id , “ D an ny w an te d to m ak e s u re y ou k new th at G ra m erc y Tav ern w asn ’t t h e o nly o ne o f h is r e sta u ra n ts t h at’ s w illin g t o g arn is h y our s a la d with a B eatle .” If y ou m en tio n th at it’ s y our a n niv ers a ry o r y our b ir th day , th e r e sta u ra n t w ill re m em ber. I f y ou p re fe r a ta b le b y th e w in dow , it w ill r e m em ber. I f y ou p re fe r th e c ru sty e n ds o f b re ad , it w ill r e m em ber. * T hese ta sk s a re n ot s im ple , b ec au se th ey d ep en d o n a n u nbro ken c h ain o f a w are n ess a n d a ctio n. T he w aite r w ho bro ught th e C hâte au d ’Y quem h ad to (1 ) b e a le rt to th e d ynam ic b etw een th e ex cite d , h opefu l y oung w om an a n d h er w orrie d p are n ts ; (2 ) n otic e th e fa th er’s co m men t a b out th e w in e; (3 ) c o nnect it to a n id ea; (4 ) b e e m pow ere d to s p en d th e re sta u ra n t’ s m oney o n a g estu re ; a n d (5 ) d eliv er th at g estu re w ith g ra ce. A t an y p oin t, th e c h ain c o uld h av e b een b ro ken , a n d n o o ne w ould h av e n otic ed . But th e c h ain w asn ’t b ro ken , a n d s o it c re ate d th e s ig natu re u pw ellin g o f w arm em otio n th at h as c arrie d M ey er’s v en tu re s to s u ccess. T he q uestio n is , h ow d oes Mey er a cco m plis h t h is s o r e lia b ly a t s o m an y r e sta u ra n ts ? — When y ou s it d ow n a cro ss th e ta b le f ro m D an ny M ey er, h is e y es lo ck o n y ou in a m ix o f in te re st an d em path y. H is b ody la n guag e is re la x ed an d ale rt but unhurrie d . H is v oic e is ste ad y, w ith a m id w este rn earn estn ess th at’ s v ag uely re m in is c en t o f J im my S te w art. If y ou a sk h im a q uestio n— sa y , w hat’ s th e b est ham burg er i n N ew Y ork — he p au se s b efo re a n sw erin g. H e h as d ev ote d h undre d s of h ours to ex plo rin g th is q uestio n, so h e k now s a g re at d eal. B ut w hen h e an sw ers , th at a n sw er h as n oth in g to d o w ith h is k now le d ge a n d e v ery th in g to d o with y ou. “W ell,” h e s a y s. “ W hat k in d o f h am burg er y ou lik e d ep en ds o n w hat k in d o f mood y ou’re i n .” We’re in M aia lin o, one of his re sta u ra n ts near G ra m erc y P ark , an d it’ s bre ak fa st. A ro und us th e M ey eria n univ ers e is sp in nin g co nte n te d ly : fre sh flo w ers b urs t f ro m c era m ic v ase s, a n d h ap py d in ers c h at w ith a tte n tiv e w aite rs . We’re ta lk in g a b out h ow M ey er s tu die d p olitic al s c ie n ce a t T rin ity C olle g e a n d how h e w ork ed f o r a p re sid en tia l c am paig n ( w hic h h elp ed h im s e e e v ery w ork er as b asic ally a v olu nte er) w hen , b eh in d m e, a tr a y accid en ta lly slip s fro m a waite r’s h an d, a n d s e v era l w ate r g la sse s s m ash o n t h e f lo or. For a m ic ro se co nd, a ll th e a ctio n s to ps. M ey er r a is e s a f in ger, p re ssin g p au se on o ur c o nvers a tio n s o h e c an w atc h w hat h ap pen s. T he w aite r w ho d ro pped th e gla sse s s ta rts p ic k in g u p th e p ie ces, a n d a n oth er w aite r a rriv es w ith a b ro om a n d a d ustp an . T he c le an up h ap pen s s w if tly , a n d e v ery one tu rn s b ack to th eir fo od. Then I a sk M ey er w hy h e w as w atc h in g s o c lo se ly . “I’m w atc h in g fo r w hat h ap pen s rig ht a fte rw ard , a n d I’m lo okin g fo r th eir en erg y le v el to g o u p,” h e s a y s. “ T hey c o nnect to c le an u p th e p ro ble m , a n d th e en erg y le v el g oes eith er u p o r d ow n, an d if w e’re d oin g o ur jo b rig ht, th eir en erg y l e v el w ill g o u p.” H e p uts h is f is ts t o geth er, a n d t h en m ak es a n e x plo sio n gestu re w ith h is f in gers . “ T hey a re c re atin g u plif tin g e n erg y th at h as n oth in g to do w ith th e ta sk a n d e v ery th in g to d o w ith e ach o th er a n d w hat c o m es n ex t. I t’ s not r e ally t h at d if fe re n t f ro m a n a n t c o lo ny o r a b eeh iv e. E very a ctio n a d ds o n t o th e o th ers .” I a sk M ey er w hat a b ad in te ra ctio n lo oks lik e. “ It’ s o ne o f tw o th in gs,” h e sa y s. “ E ith er th ey ’re d is in te re ste d — ‘I’m ju st d oin g m y jo b’ k in d o f th in g. O r th ey ’re a n gry a t th e o th er p ers o n o r th e situ atio n. A nd if I w ere to se e th at, I would k now th at th ere ’s a d eep er p ro ble m h ere , b ecau se th e n um ber-o ne jo b is to t a k e c are o f e ach o th er. I d id n’t a lw ay s k now t h at, b ut I k now i t n ow .” Mey er s ta rts t e llin g m e a b out h is b ack gro und: h is y outh i n S t. L ouis , t h e e arly fa sc in atio n w ith fo od a n d tr a v el, th e e m otio nally d is ta n t fa th er w ho w as in th e hote l a n d fo od b usin ess, M ey er’s la st- s e co nd v eer a w ay fro m la w sc h ool a n d in to th e re sta u ra n t b usin ess, a n d fin ally th e m id -1 980s a n d th e e arly d ay s o f Unio n S quare C afe , w here h is e d ucatio n r e ally b eg an . “I d id n’t k now h ow to r e ad a b ala n ce s h eet,” h e s a y s. “ I d id n’t k now h ow to man ag e flo w o r ru n a k itc h en . I d id n’t k now a n yth in g. B ut I d id k now h ow I wan te d to m ak e p eo ple f e el. I w an te d th em to f e el lik e th ey c o uld n’t te ll if th ey had s ta y ed h om e o r g one o ut.” To d o th at, M ey er re lie d o n in stin ct. H e h ir e d m id w este rn ers to in cre ase frie n dlin ess. H e tr a in ed th e sta ff him se lf , pla y actin g vario us w aite r-d in er sc en ario s. W hen s e rv ic e w as s lo w , a s it o fte n w as in th e e arly d ay s, h e p la cate d guests w ith fre e w in e a n d g av e th e s ta ff la titu de to p ro vid e tr e ats . H e m ad e a hab it o f g ath erin g t id bits o f i n fo rm atio n t o h elp h is g uests f e el m ore a t h om e. H e paid p artic u la r a tte n tio n to la n guag e. H e h ate d w aite r-s p eak lik e “ A re y ou s till work in g on th at? ” (it’ s not w ork !) or “Is ev ery th in g to your lik in g?” (s o im pers o nal! ). In ste ad , h e s o ught to c re ate la n guag e th at g av e g uests th e fe elin g th at t h e s ta ff w as o n t h eir s id e. F or i n sta n ce, w hen a r e se rv atio n w as u nav aila b le , he w ould s a y , “ C an y ou g iv e m e a r a n ge o f t im es t h at w ork f o r y ou, s o I c an r o ot fo r a c an cella tio n?” Unio n S quare C afe w as a h uge s u ccess, w ith th e e v er-p re se n t M ey er w ork in g th e d oor, b usin g ta b le s, a n d c le an in g u p s p ills . T hen in 1 995 h e o pen ed a s e co nd re sta u ra n t, G ra m erc y T av ern . A nd th at’ s w hen th in gs got dif fic u lt. S erv ic e sta rte d to s lip . F ood w as in co n sis te n t. C usto m ers w ere u nhap py. M ey er w ould sp lit his tim e betw een th e tw o re sta u ra n ts tr y in g fra n tic ally to boost perfo rm an ce, b ut it w asn ’t w ork in g. “ It w as a c o m ple te n ig htm are ,” h e s a y s. “ I was m is e ra b le . I w as r u nnin g b ack a n d f o rth b etw een t h e t w o p la ces, a n d n eith er of t h em w as d oin g a s w ell a s I w an te d . I t w as k in d o f a c la ssic s itu atio n. I m ean , th is i s w hy m ost p eo ple w ho o pen a r e sta u ra n t o pen o nly o ne.” It a ll c am e to a h ead o ne d ay th at fa ll a t G ra m erc y T av ern , w hen a re g ula r cu sto m er w ho w as h ostin g a lu nch f o r s ix o rd ere d s a lm on. S he a te a b out h alf o f it, th en to ld th e w aite r th at sh e d id n’t c are fo r it— co uld sh e h av e so m eth in g els e ? T he w aite r b ro ught a n ew d is h , th en a sk ed G ra m erc y ’s m an ag er w heth er th e s a lm on s h ould s ta y o n th e w om an ’s b ill. T he m an ag er s a id it s h ould . A fte r all, th e w om an h ad e ate n m ore th an h alf o f th e d is h , a n d th ere h ad b een n oth in g wro ng w ith th e s a lm on. W hen th e w om an p aid , s h e w as h an ded a d oggie b ag with t h e r e m ain s o f h er s a lm on. W hen t h e w om an g ot h om e, s h e w ro te t o M ey er, “I c an ’t b elie v e h ow in su ltin g a n d p assiv e-a g gre ssiv e th is w as, a n d it’ s n ot w hat I w ould e x pect a t o ne o f y our r e sta u ra n ts .” “S he w as ab so lu te ly rig ht,” M ey er sa y s. “A nd here ’s th e w ors t part: Every body at G ra m erc y th ought th ey w ere d oin g a g ood jo b. T he m an ag er th ought th ey w ere d oin g a g ood jo b. T he w aite r th ought th ey w ere d oin g a g ood jo b. E very body s to od t h ere a n d w atc h ed th is h ap pen , a n d n obody s to pped i t. W e had s p en t h ours a n d h ours tr a in in g p eo ple n ot to d o th is k in d o f th in g, b ut th ey were d oin g it, a n d w e h ad n o c o ntr o l. T hat’ s w hen I k new th at I h ad to fin d a way to b uild a la n guag e, to te ach b eh av io r. I c o uld n o lo nger ju st m odel th e beh av io r a n d tr u st th at p eo ple w ould u nders ta n d a n d d o it. I h ad to s ta rt n am in g stu ff.” A f e w w eek s l a te r M ey er i n vite d t h e e n tir e s ta ff t o a S atu rd ay r e tr e at a lo ng t h e Hudso n R iv er a n d sta rte d a c o nvers a tio n a b out v alu es: What w ere th ey re a lly about? W hat d id t h ey s ta nd f o r? W ho c a m e f ir st? “T hat sa lm on in cid en t w as th e Ply m outh R ock m om en t,” sa y s R ic h ard Cora in e, c h ie f d ev elo pm en t o ffic er o f th e U nio n S quare H osp ita lity G ro up, th e pare n t c o m pan y f o r M ey er’s r e sta u ra n ts . “ D an ny r e aliz ed t h at h e n eed ed t o b e i n tw o p la ces a t o nce. W hic h m ean t th at h e h ad to f in d a w ay to d eliv er th e s ig nal. Peo ple w ill r e sp ond t o w hat t h eir b oss f e els i s i m porta n t. S o D an ny h ad t o d efin e an d a rtic u la te w hat w as i m porta n t.” At t h e r e tr e at, M ey er a n d t h e s ta ff r a n ked t h eir p rio ritie s: 1. Colle ag ues 2. Guests 3. Com munity 4. Supplie rs 5. In vesto rs For M ey er, th is w as a b re ak th ro ugh. “N am in g th ese th in gs fe lt in cre d ib ly good,” h e s a y s. “ G ettin g a ll th is o ut in th e o pen . T he m an ag er w ho’d c au se d th e sa lm on p ro ble m e n ded u p l e av in g, a n d t h at’ s w hen t h in gs s ta rte d t o t a k e o ff, a n d I re aliz ed th at how w e tr e at each oth er is ev ery th in g. If w e do th at w ell, ev ery th in g e ls e w ill f a ll i n to p la ce.” In a s im ila r w ay , M ey er th en a tte m pte d to n am e th e s p ecif ic b eh av io rs a n d in te ra ctio ns h e w an te d to c re ate a t h is r e sta u ra n ts . H e a lr e ad y h ad a n a sso rtm en t of c atc h phra se s t h at h e u se d i n fo rm ally i n t r a in in g— he h ad a k nack f o r d is tillin g id eas in to h an dy m ax im s. B ut n ow h e s ta rte d p ay in g d eep er a tte n tio n to th ese phra se s, t h in kin g a b out t h em a s t o ols . H ere a re a f e w : Read t h e g uest Ath le tic h osp ita lity Writin g a g re at f in al c h ap te r Turn in g u p t h e H om e D ia l Lovin g p ro ble m s Fin din g t h e y es Colle ctin g t h e d ots a n d c o nnectin g t h e d ots Cre atin g r a v es f o r g uests One s iz e f its o ne Skunkin g Mak in g t h e c h arita b le a ssu m ptio n Pla n tin g l ik e s e ed s i n l ik e g ard en s Put u s o ut o f b usin ess w ith y our g en ero sity Be a w are o f y our e m otio nal w ak e To g et a h ug, y ou h av e t o g iv e a h ug The e x celle n ce r e fle x Are y ou a n a g en t o r a g ate k eep er? On th e su rfa ce, th ese lo ok lik e g ard en -v arie ty c o rp ora te a p horis m s. In fa ct, each o f th em fu nctio ns a s a s m all n arra tiv e in its e lf , p ro vid in g a v iv id m en ta l model fo r so lv in g th e ro utin e p ro ble m s th e sta ff fa ced . Makin g th e c h arita ble assu m ptio n m ean s t h at w hen s o m eo ne b eh av es p oorly , y ou s h ould a v oid j u dgin g th em a n d in ste ad g iv e th em th e b en efit o f th e d oubt. Colle ctin g th e d ots m ean s gath erin g i n fo rm atio n a b out g uests ; co nnectin g t h e d ots i s u sin g t h at i n fo rm atio n to c re ate h ap pin ess. Sku nkin g is s p ra y in g n eg ativ e e n erg y in to th e w ork pla ce, a s sk unks do when th ey ’re frig hte n ed . By th em se lv es, th ese phra se s are unre m ark ab le . B ut to geth er, e n dle ssly re p eate d a n d m odele d th ro ugh b eh av io r, th ey c re ate a l a rg er c o ncep tu al f ra m ew ork t h at c o nnects w ith t h e g ro up’s i d en tity an d e x pre sse s i ts c o re p urp ose : We t a ke c a re o f p eo ple . Mey er b ecam e m ore i n te n tio nal a b out e m bed din g h is c atc h phra se s a n d s ta tin g prio ritie s in tr a in in g, sta ff m eetin gs, an d all co m munic atio ns. H e p ush ed h is le ad ers to s e ek o pportu nitie s to u se a n d m odel th e k ey b eh av io rs . H e b eg an to tr e at h is r o le a s t h at o f a c u ltu re b ro ad caste r. A nd i t w ork ed . I n a f e w m onth s, t h e atm osp here a t b oth re sta u ra n ts im pro ved m ark ed ly . M ey er k ep t it u p, ste ad ily ex pan din g a n d re fin in g th e la n guag e. “ Y ou h av e p rio ritie s, w heth er y ou n am e th em o r n ot,” h e s a y s. “ If y ou w an t to g ro w , y ou’d b ette r n am e th em , a n d y ou’d bette r n am e t h e b eh av io rs t h at s u pport t h e p rio ritie s.” A co uple years afte r th e sa lm on in cid en t, an N YU docto ra l stu den t in org an iz atio nal b eh av io r n am ed S usa n R eilly S alg ad o b ecam e c u rio us a b out w hy Mey er’s re sta u ra n ts fe lt so d if fe re n t fro m a ll o th ers . A s sh e c h atte d w ith th e waits ta ff, s h e n otic ed th at th ey a ll te n ded to d esc rib e th eir jo bs w ith th e s a m e word s: hom e, f a m ily , w arm th . S he a p pro ach ed M ey er a n d a sk ed h im i f s h e c o uld mak e t h e r e sta u ra n t t h e s u bje ct o f h er r e se arc h , a n d h e a g re ed , p ro vid ed s h e t o ok a jo b th ere . S alg ad o w ork ed a t U nio n S quare C afe f o r s ix m onth s. S he w atc h ed th e w ay th e s ta ff m em bers in te ra cte d w ith o ne a n oth er a n d w ith c u sto m ers , a n d sh e n otic ed w hat sh e calle d “m ic ro -p ro cesse s” th at d ro ve th ose in te ra ctio ns. Here is how sh e su m med up her fin din gs in her dis se rta tio n: “T he re su lts in dic ate th at Unio n Square Cafe ach ie v es its dif fe re n tia tio n str a te g y of ‘e n lig hte n ed hosp ita lity ’ th ro ugh a sy nerg is tic se t of hum an re so urc e man ag em en t pra ctic es in volv in g th re e key pra ctic es: se le ctio n of em plo yees base d on em otio nal cap ab ilitie s, re sp ectf u l tr e atm en t of em plo yees, an d man ag em en t th ro ugh a s im ple s e t o f ru le s th at s tim ula te c o m ple x a n d in tr ic ate beh av io rs b en efitin g c u sto m ers .” A s im ple s e t o f r u le s t h at s tim ula te c o m ple x a nd i n tr ic a te b eh avio rs b en efitin g cu sto m ers . S alg ad o d is c o vere d , in o th er w ord s, th at M ey er su cceed ed fo r th e sa m e re aso n Ja m es B urk e su cceed ed w ith th e C re d o ch alle n ge. C re atin g en gag em en t a ro und a c le ar, s im ple s e t o f p rio ritie s c an f u nctio n a s a lig hth ouse , orie n tin g b eh av io r a n d p ro vid in g a p ath t o w ard a g oal. — All o f w hic h ra is e s th e d eep er q uestio n o f h ow ex actly th is h ap pen s, h ow a han dfu l o f c atc h phra se s a n d a lis t o f p rio ritie s c an p ro duce su ch sm ooth a n d pro fic ie n t p erfo rm an ce. W e c an g et a n a n sw er fro m a n u nlik ely s o urc e: a tin y org an is m c alle d a s lim e m old . Slim e m old s are an cie n t, blo blik e org an is m s m ad e up of th ousa n ds of in div id ual am oeb ae. M ost of th e tim e slim e m old s are passiv e, se d ate , an d wholly u nre m ark ab le . B ut w hen f o od b eco m es s c arc e, t h e t h ousa n ds o f a m oeb ae beg in to w ork to geth er in a b eau tif u l a n d in te llig en t w ay . B ack in th e 1 940s, a Harv ard u nderg ra d uate n am ed Jo hn T yle r B onner p hoto gra p hed slim e m old s with a tim e-la p se c am era a n d m ad e a f ilm , w hic h h e b eg an to s h ow to a cad em ic au die n ces. W ord sp re ad , a n d b efo re lo ng le ctu re h alls w ere o verflo w in g w ith en ra p tu re d c ro w ds. A lb ert E in ste in r e q ueste d a p riv ate v ie w in g. J . J . O ’N eill o f th e New Y ork H era ld T rib une to ld B onner th at h is w ork w as m ore im porta n t th an t h e d is c o very o f t h e a to m ic b om b. The film ’s fir s t fra m es sh ow a d is c o nnecte d sc atte rin g o f sm all g ra y b lo bs. But th en , a s if r e sp ondin g to a n in vis ib le s ig nal, th e a m oeb ae m ove w ith s in gle in te n t to w ard th e c en te r, w here th ousa n ds o f th em fu se to geth er in to a sin gle org an is m th at s ta rts to m ove. A t th e tip o f th e o rg an is m , a n oth er tr a n sfo rm atio n hap pen s a s s o m e o f th e a m oeb ae c ra w l u pw ard , f o rm in g a s ta lk . O th er a m oeb ae cra w l over th em , w here th ey beco m e sp ore s, to blo w off in th e w in d an d re p ro duce. T he w hole th in g is u tte rly m ag ic al a n d o rc h estr a l, a s if s o m e h id den co nducto r w ere w his p erin g in str u ctio ns: You over here , now here , now all to geth er . T he f ilm b ecam e a s e n sa tio n b ecau se it e m bodie d a p ro fo und m yste ry : How d oes th is k in d o f in te llig en t g ro up b eh av io r h ap pen w ith cre atu re s th at posse ss n o i n te llig en ce? For years , re se arc h ers pre su m ed th at th e beh av io r w as a re su lt of an “o rg an iz er c ell” th at f u nctio ned a s a k in d o f b io lo gic al d rill s e rg ean t, te llin g th e oth ers w hat to d o a n d w hen . T his o rg an iz er c ell, it tu rn s o ut, d oes n ot e x is t. What does ex is t is so m eth in g m ore pow erfu l: a sim ple se t of ru le s calle d heu ris tic s t h at d riv e b eh av io r. “W e a ssu m e th at b ecau se w e’re c o m ple x , th at th e w ay w e m ak e d ecis io ns is als o co m ple x ,” sa y s M ad ele in e B eek m an , w ho stu die s slim e m old s at th e Univ ers ity o f S ydney . “ B ut in re ality , w e’re u sin g v ery s im ple ru le s o f th um b. The slim e m old sh ow s us th at it’ s possib le fo r gro ups to so lv e ex tr e m ely co m ple x p ro ble m s u sin g a f e w r u le s o f t h um b.” In t h e c ase o f s lim e m old s, t h ese r u le s o f t h um b a re a s f o llo w s: If t h ere ’s n o f o od, c o nnect w ith o ne a n oth er. If c o nnecte d , s ta y c o nnecte d a n d m ove t o w ard t h e l ig ht. If y ou r e ach t h e l ig ht, s ta y c o nnecte d a n d c lim b. “H oney bees w ork th e s a m e w ay ,” B eek m an s a y s. “ S o d o a n ts a n d m an y o th er sp ecie s. T hey a ll u se d ecis io n-m ak in g h eu ris tic s. T here ’s n o r e aso n w e w ould n’t use i t t o o. I f y ou l o ok a t t h ese s p ecie s, y ou c an f e el t h e c o nnectio n. L ik e u s, t h ey all s e ek a c o lle ctiv e g oal.” Beek m an a n d th e s lim e m old s g iv e u s a n ew w ay to th in k a b out w hy D an ny Mey er’s c atc h phra se s w ork s o w ell. T hey a re n ot m ere ly c atc h phra se s; th ey a re heu ris tic s th at pro vid e guid an ce by cre atin g if /th en sc en ario s in a viv id , mem ora b le w ay . S tr u ctu ra lly , th ere is n o d if fe re n ce b etw een If s o m eo ne is r u de, make a c h arita ble a ssu m ptio n a n d If th ere ’s n o fo od, c o nnect w ith o ne a noth er . Both fu nctio n as a co ncep tu al beaco n, cre atin g situ atio nal aw are n ess an d pro vid in g cla rity in tim es of pote n tia l co nfu sio n. T his is w hy so m an y of Mey er’s c atc h phra se s f o cu s o n h ow t o r e sp ond t o m is ta k es. You c an ’t p re v en t m is ta k es, b ut y ou c an s o lv e p ro ble m s g ra cio usly . If i t a in ’t b ro ke, f ix i t. Mis ta k es a re l ik e w av es; s e rv ers a re r e ally s u rfe rs . The r o ad t o s u ccess i s p av ed w ith m is ta k es w ell h an dle d . The t r ic k i s n ot j u st t o s e n d t h e s ig nal b ut t o c re ate e n gag em en t a ro und i t. T his is w here M ey er e x cels . H e a p pro ach es th e c atc h phra se -c re atin g p ro cess w ith th e fo cu se d v erv e o f a p op s o ngw rite r. H e g en era te s c o nsta n tly , te stin g w hic h o nes work . H e se ek s sn ap py, v is c era l p hra se s th at u se v iv id im ag es to h elp te am mem bers co nnect. R ic h ard C ora in e’s offic e co nta in s a w hite b oard th at is co vere d w ith w ork s i n p ro gre ss. We a re a ll p aid t o s o lv e p ro ble m s. M ak e s u re t o p ic k f u n p eo ple t o s o lv e pro ble m s w ith . There ’s g lo ry i n m ak in g a m is ta k e. Sto ne a fte r s to ne t o f o rm a b rid ge. Mey er’s n ot a lo ne. M an y l e ad ers o f h ig h-p ro fic ie n cy g ro ups f o cu s o n c re atin g prio ritie s, nam in g key sto ne beh av io rs , an d flo odin g th e en vir o nm en t w ith heu ris tic s th at lin k th e tw o. F or e x am ple , if y ou sp en d tim e a ro und th e N ew Zeala n d A ll- B la ck s ru gby te am , y ou w ill h ear th em ta lk ab out “le av in g th e je rs e y in a b ette r p la ce,” a n d s a y in g, “ If y ou’re n ot g ro w in g a n yw here , y ou’re not g oin g an yw here ,” k eep in g a “b lu e h ead ” in ste ad o f a “re d h ead ” (w hic h re fe rs to calm ness under pre ssu re ), “P re ssu re is a priv ile g e,” “T Q B— to ta l quality b all,” “K BA — keep th e b all aliv e,” “F ro nt u p, o r fu ck o ff,” “It’ s an honor, n ot a j o b,” “ G o f o r t h e g ap ,” a n d “ B ette r p eo ple m ak e b ette r A ll- B la ck s.” KIP P, th e netw ork of hig hly su ccessfu l ch arte r sc h ools , is sim ila rly built aro und c atc h phra se s lik e “ N o s h ortc u ts ,” “ W ork h ard , b e n ic e,” “ D on’t e at th e mars h m allo w ,” “T eam an d fa m ily ,” “If th ere ’s a pro ble m , w e lo ok fo r th e so lu tio n,” “ R ead , b ab y, re ad ,” “ A ll o f u s w ill le arn ,” “ K IP Pste rs d o th e rig ht th in g w hen n o o ne is w atc h in g,” “ E very th in g is e arn ed ,” “ B e th e c o nsta n t, n ot th e v aria b le ,” “ If a t e am mate n eed s h elp , w e g iv e; i f w e n eed h elp , w e a sk ,” “ N o ro bots ,” a n d “ P ro ve t h e d oubte rs w ro ng.” At f ir s t e n co unte r, a h eu ris tic -d en se c u ltu re f e els s lig htly o ff-p uttin g. “ F or th e fir s t f e w d ay s I w ork ed h ere , I h eard a ll t h e l a n guag e, a n d i t w as l ik e, ‘ A re w e i n su m mer cam p?’   ” sa y s A llis o n Sta ad , Shak e Shack ’s se n io r m ark etin g an d co m munic atio ns m an ag er. “ It’ s to ta lly h okey a n d c o rn y. A nd th en y ou s ta rt to se e h ow t h ey w ork , a n d y ou s ta rt u sin g t h em i n r e g ula r l if e . T hen a ll o f a s u dden th ey ’re n ot c o rn y— th ey ’re j u st p art o f t h e o xygen .” “T he m ost p ow erfu l th in g a b out a ll th ose p hra se s is th e w ay D an ny e m bodie s th em ,” sa y s C ora in e. “W hat he’s ex cep tio nal at is re aliz in g th at peo ple are lo okin g a t h im e v ery s e co nd, a n d h e’s d eliv erin g th ose m essa g es e v ery s e co nd, ev ery d ay . H e’s lik e a p ow erfu l W i- F i s ig nal. S om e p eo ple s e n d th re e b ars , b ut Dan ny i s a t t e n b ars , a n d h e n ev er g oes b elo w n in e.” * Much o f t h is r e m em berin g t a k es p la ce w ith in t h e r e se rv atio ns s y ste m , w here g uest p re fe re n ces a re re lig io usly n ote d b y w aits ta ff a n d m an ag ers . I s a w o ne g uest n ote t h at r e ad : Lik es e xtr a b utte r w ith b re a d; need s a l o t o f l o ve. O n a fu ndam en ta l le v el, D an ny M ey er, K IP P, a n d th e A ll- B la ck s a re u sin g th e s a m e p urp ose -b uild in g te ch niq ue. W e m ig ht c all it th e lig hth ouse m eth od: T hey c re ate p urp ose b y g en era tin g a c le ar b eam o f s ig nals th at lin k A ( w here w e a re ) t o B ( w here w e w an t to b e). T here ’s a n oth er d im en sio n o f le ad ers h ip , h ow ev er, w here th e goal is n ’t to get fro m A to B but to nav ig ate to an unknow n d estin atio n, X . T his i s t h e d im en sio n o f c re ativ ity a n d i n novatio n. Cre ativ e le ad ers h ip ap pears to be m yste rio us, becau se w e te n d to re g ard c re ativ ity a s a g if t, a s a q uasi- m ag ic al a b ility to s e e th in gs th at d o n ot y et e x is t a n d to in ven t th em . A cco rd in gly , w e te n d to th in k o f c re ativ e le ad ers a s a rtis ts , a b le to ta p in to w ells p rin gs o f in sp ir a tio n a n d g en iu s th at a re in accessib le to th e r e st o f u s. A nd t o b e s u re , s o m e l e ad ers f it t h is d esc rip tio n. The fu nny th in g is , w hen I v is ite d le ad ers o f su ccessfu l c re ativ e c u ltu re s, I d id n’t m eet m an y artis ts . In ste ad , I m et a d if fe re n t ty pe, a ty pe w ho sp oke q uie tly a n d te n ded to s p en d a lo t o f tim e o bse rv in g, w ho h ad a n in tr o verte d v ib e a n d lik ed to ta lk a b out sy ste m s. I sta rte d to th in k o f th is ty pe o f p ers o n a s a C re ativ e E ngin eer. Ed C atm ull i s s u ch a l e ad er. A s o ft- s p oken s e v en ty -tw o-y ear-o ld w ith a b ris tly b eard a n d q uic k , w atc h fu l e y es, h e is p re sid en t a n d c o fo under o f P ix ar, o ne o f t h e m ost s u ccessfu l c re ativ e c u ltu re s o f a ll tim e. E very o th er s tu dio in th e w orld h opes to c re ate a h it o nce in a w hile . P ix ar c an b e th ought o f a s a m ach in e th at c re ate s h its e v ery s in gle tim e. S in ce 1 995, it h as m ad e s e v en te en fe atu re film s, w hic h h av e e arn ed a n a v era g e o f m ore th an h alf a b illio n d olla rs , w on th ir te en A cad em y A ward s, a n d g en era te d s o m e o f th e m ost b elo ved c u ltu ra l to uch sto nes o f o ur a g e. A d ecad e a g o C atm ull to ok a sid e jo b o f c o -le ad in g W alt D is n ey Anim atio n S tu dio s an d h elp ed it g en era te a str in g o f b lo ck buste rs in clu din g Fro ze n , Big H ero 6 , a n d Zooto pia . I m eet C atm ull a t P ix ar’s h ead quarte rs in E m ery ville , C alif o rn ia , in sid e th e stu dio ’s s le ek B ro okly n b uild in g. B ro okly n, b uilt i n 2 010, i s a s u nlit b ox o f g la ss an d re cla im ed w ood, brim min g w ith Pix aria n to uch es lik e a sp eak easy , a fir e p la ce, a fu ll- s e rv ic e café , an d a ro of deck . It is easily one of th e m ost stu nnin g o ffic e b uild in gs I ’v e e v er s e en . ( A s o ne e arly v is ito r p ut i t, “ T han ks f o r ru in in g th e r e st o f m y lif e .” ) A s C atm ull a n d I w alk th ro ugh s h afts o f s u nlig ht, I mak e a p assin g r e m ark a b out t h e b uild in g’s b eau ty . He s to ps a n d tu rn s to f a ce m e. H is v oic e is q uie t a n d a u th orita tiv e, th e v oic e of a d octo r m ak in g a d ia g nosis : “ In f a ct, t h is b uild in g w as a m is ta k e.” I l e an i n , u nsu re I ’v e h eard c o rre ctly . “T he re aso n it’ s a m is ta k e,” C atm ull co ntin ues ev en ly , “is th at it d oesn ’t cre ate th e k in ds o f in te ra ctio ns w e n eed to c re ate . W e sh ould h av e m ad e th e hallw ay s w id er. W e s h ould h av e m ad e t h e c afé b ig ger, t o d ra w m ore p eo ple . W e sh ould h av e p ut th e o ffic es a ro und th e e d ges to c re ate m ore s h are d s p ace in th e cen te r. S o it w asn ’t lik e th ere w as o ne m is ta k e. T here w ere re ally a lo t o f mis ta k es, a lo ng o f c o urs e w ith th e b ig ger m is ta k e th at w e d id n’t s e e m ost o f th e mis ta k es u ntil i t w as t o o l a te .” This is an unusu al th in g fo r a pre sid en t of a co m pan y to sa y . If you co m plim en t m ost l e ad ers o n t h eir b eau tif u l m ultim illio n-d olla r b uild in g, t h ey s a y th an k you, an d th ey m ean it. M ost le ad ers w ill not ad m it m is ta k es of th is mag nitu de b ecau se th ey f e el th e a d m is sio n w ould p ro duce a d an gero us w hif f o f in co m pete n ce. B ut n ot C atm ull. H e lo ves th ese m om en ts ; in a w ay , h e liv es f o r th em . T here is n o b la m e o r ju dgm en t in h is g aze, o nly a q uie t s a tis fa ctio n b orn of c la rity . We m ade s o m e m is ta kes w ith th is b uild in g, a nd n ow w e k n ow th at, and w e a re s lig htly b ette r b eca use w e k n ow t h at. If y ou s e t o ut to d esig n a lif e th at re p re se n te d th e p erfe ct m erg er o f a rt a n d sc ie n ce, y ou m ig ht d esig n o ne th at lo oks lik e C atm ull’ s . T he c h ild o f e d ucato rs , he sp en t h is e arly y ears id oliz in g E in ste in a n d D is n ey , stu dyin g d ra w in g a n d physic s, a n d d re am in g o f m ak in g f e atu re -le n gth a n im ate d m ovie s. A fte r c o lle g e, he la n ded a jo b w ith G eo rg e L ucas, w hic h le d to a p artn ers h ip w ith S te v e J o bs an d th e c re atio n o f P ix ar, a s m all s tu dio w ith a m bitio ns o f f u sin g c o m pute rs a n d film mak in g. For s e v era l y ears , P ix ar s tr u ggle d . T hen in 1 995 c am e th e b re ak th ro ugh, th e $360 m illio n s u ccess o f Toy S to ry . T hat’ s w hen C atm ull b eg an to g et a n ag gin g fe elin g th at s o m eth in g w as o ut o f b ala n ce. H e k new th at o th er c o m pan ie s h ad been in th is p re cis e s itu atio n— on to p o f th e w orld , flu sh w ith c ash , la u ded fo r th eir c re ativ ity a n d in novatio n. A nd m ost o f th em h ad s tu m ble d , lo st th eir w ay , an d c o lla p se d . T he q uestio n w as w hy? A nd h ow c o uld P ix ar a v oid th at fa te ? Catm ull t a lk ed a b out t h at m om en t i n a p odcast. “S o th e q uestio n w as, o kay , h ow d o y ou m ak e it so th at it’ s su sta in ab le ? Becau se t h e p eo ple I k new o f w ho w ere i n t h ese [ fa ile d ] c o m pan ie s— an d I h ad a lo t o f frie n ds in S ilic o n V alle y — were s m art, a n d th ey w ere c re ativ e, a n d th ey were h ard w ork in g. S o w hate v er p ro ble m w as a ctu ally le ad in g th em a str a y w as re ally h ard to s e e, a n d th e im plic atio n w as, w hate v er th at fo rc e w as, it w ould als o a p ply to u s a t P ix ar. S o th is b ecam e th e in te re stin g q uestio n. T hese fo rc es are a t w ork — can w e f in d th em b efo re th ey d o u s in ? S o a t th e e n d o f th e y ear I re aliz ed th at th is is a ctu ally th e n ex t g oal. I t’ s n ot a f ilm . I t’ s h ow w e c an h av e an e n vir o nm en t w here w e c an f in d a n d a d dre ss t h ese p ro ble m s.” We le av e th e B ro okly n b uild in g a n d w alk a cro ss c am pus to th e S te v e Jo bs build in g, w hic h p osse sse s m an y o f th e fe atu re s B ro okly n la ck s: a m assiv e a n d welc o m in g c en tr a l a tr iu m , w id e h allw ay s f o r c o ngre g atio n, a n d a h iv elik e b uzz. Near th e s ta ir s o n th e s e co nd f lo or s ta n d tw o o ffic es th at e m body th e tw o p illa rs of P ix ar’s c re ativ e a p pro ach . T he o ffic e o n th e le ft b elo ngs to Jo hn L asse te r, Pix ar’s cre ativ e co m pass, m aste r sto ry te lle r, an d m use . H is o ffic e is alm ost in vis ib le b en eath a D ay -G lo m ora in e o f to ys: a ctio n f ig ure s, d olls , b oth o ld a n d new , d ozen s o f v ers io ns o f M ic k ey M ouse , W oody, a n d B uzz L ig hty ear. O n th e rig ht is C atm ull’ s o ffic e, lo okin g as if it w ere lif te d in ta ct fro m a G erm an aero sp ace f ir m : c o ol, e ffic ie n t r e cta n gle s r e n dere d i n b la ck , w hite , a n d g ra y . Catm ull sits d ow n an d sta rts ex pla in in g, in h is calm d octo rly v oic e, h ow Pix ar’s c re ativ ity h ap pen s. “ A ll th e m ovie s a re b ad a t f ir s t,” h e s a y s. “ S om e a re bey ond b ad . Fro ze n a n d Big H ero 6 , fo r in sta n ce, w ere u nm itig ate d d is a ste rs . The s to rie s w ere f la t, th e c h ara cte rs w ere n ’t th ere . T hey s u ck ed . I ’m n ot s a y in g th at in a m odest w ay . I w as in th e m eetin gs. I s a w th e e arly v ers io ns, a n d th ey were b ad . R eally b ad .” This p atte rn is n ot u nusu al a t P ix ar. I n th e o rig in al Toy S to ry , W oody s ta rte d out a s b ossy a n d u nlik ab le ( “ a s a rc astic je rk ,” C atm ull s a y s). T he e arly v ers io ns of Up w ere s o b ad th at th e e n tir e s to ry w as c h an ged . “ L ite ra lly th e o nly th in g th at s ta y ed t h e s a m e w as t h e w ord up, ” h e s a y s. When m ost p eo ple te ll s to rie s a b out th eir s u ccessfu l c re ativ e e n deav ors , th ose sto rie s o fte n g o l ik e t h is : The pro je ct s ta rte d o ut a s a c o m ple te d is a ste r, b ut t h en at th e la st m om en t, so m eh ow w e m anaged to re sc u e it . T his a rc is a ttr a ctiv e becau se i t d ra m atiz es t h e i m pro bab ility o f t h e r e sc u e a n d t h us p la ces t h e t e lle r i n a f la tte rin g lig ht. B ut C atm ull is d oin g s o m eth in g p ro fo undly d if fe re n t. H e s e es th e d is a ste r a n d t h e r e sc u e n ot a s i m pro bab le c o m pan io ns b ut a s c au sa lly r e la te d . The fa ct th at th ese p ro je cts sta rt o ut a s p ain fu l, fru str a tin g d is a ste rs is n ot a n accid en t but a necessity . T his is becau se all cre ativ e pro je cts are co gnitiv e puzzle s i n volv in g t h ousa n ds o f c h oic es a n d t h ousa n ds o f p ote n tia l i d eas, a n d y ou alm ost n ev er g et th e rig ht a n sw er rig ht a w ay . B uild in g p urp ose in a c re ativ e gro up is n ot ab out g en era tin g a b rillia n t m om en t o f b re ak th ro ugh b ut ra th er ab out b uild in g sy ste m s th at can ch urn th ro ugh lo ts o f id eas in o rd er to h elp unearth t h e r ig ht c h oic es. This is w hy C atm ull h as le arn ed to fo cu s le ss o n th e id eas th an o n p eo ple — sp ecif ic ally , o n p ro vid in g te am s w ith to ols a n d su pport to lo cate p ath s, m ak e hard c h oic es, a n d n av ig ate th e a rd uous p ro cess to geth er. “ T here ’s a te n den cy in our b usin ess, a s in a ll b usin esse s, to v alu e th e id ea a s o ppose d to th e p ers o n o r a te am of peo ple ,” he sa y s. “B ut th at’ s not accu ra te . G iv e a good id ea to a med io cre te am , a n d th ey ’ll f in d a w ay to s c re w it u p. G iv e a m ed io cre id ea to a good te am , a n d th ey ’ll f in d a w ay to m ak e it b ette r. T he g oal n eed s to b e to g et th e t e am r ig ht, g et t h em m ovin g i n t h e r ig ht d ir e ctio n, a n d g et t h em t o s e e w here th ey a re m ak in g m is ta k es a n d w here t h ey a re s u cceed in g.” I a sk C atm ull h ow h e k now s w hen a t e am i s s u cceed in g. “M ostly y ou c an fe el it in th e ro om ,” h e s a y s. “ W hen a te am is n ’t w ork in g, you s e e d efe n siv e b ody la n guag e, o r y ou s e e p eo ple c lo se d ow n. O r th ere ’s ju st sile n ce. T he id eas s to p c o m in g, o r th ey c an ’t s e e th e p ro ble m s. W e u se d to u se Ste v e [J o bs] a s a k in d o f a tw o-b y-fo ur to w hack p eo ple in th e h ead so th ey co uld s e e t h e p ro ble m s i n t h e m ovie — Ste v e w as g ood a t t h at. “B ut it b eco m es h ard er a n d h ard er a s tim e g oes o n, b ecau se a s d ir e cto rs g et more ex perie n ce, th ey so m etim es h av e a h ard er tim e h earin g o th er p oin ts o f vie w th at m ig ht h elp th em . T here a re s o m an y p arts y ou h av e to g et rig ht, a n d it’ s s o e asy to g et lo st in th is s w ir lin g m ass. Y our fir s t c o nclu sio ns a re a lw ay s wro ng, a n d s o a re y our s e co nd a n d y our t h ir d . S o y ou h av e t o c re ate m ech an is m s where t e am s o f p eo ple c an k eep w ork in g t o geth er t o s e e w hat’ s r e ally h ap pen in g an d t h en w ork t o geth er t o s o lv e t h e p ro ble m s.” Pix ar re aliz es th ese m ech an is m s in a s e t o f re g ula r o rg an iz atio nal h ab its . In th e D ailie s, held in th e m orn in g, all of P ix ar’s peo ple gath er to vie w an d co m men t o n th e p re v io us d ay ’s fo ota g e. (A nim atio n is a sp ecta cu la rly slo w pro cess; e ach d ay p ro duces o nly a fe w se co nds o f film .) In fie ld tr ip s, te am s im mers e th em se lv es in th e e n vir o nm en ts o f th eir m ovie s ( s c u ba-d iv in g tr ip s f o r th e Fin din g N em o te am ; a rc h ery le sso ns f o r th e Bra ve te am ; c o okin g le sso ns f o r th e Rata to uille te am ). I n B ra in T ru st m eetin gs ( d is c u sse d in C hap te r 7 ) a te am o f Pix ar’s t o p s to ry te lle rs p ro vid es r e g ula r, v ig oro usly c an did , a n d p ain fu l f e ed back on f ilm s in d ev elo pm en t. A t P ix ar U niv ers ity , a n a sso rtm en t o f c la sse s a cts a s a kin d o f m ix er, a llo w in g p eo ple f ro m d if fe re n t a re as o f th e c o m pan y to le arn s id e by s id e. ( T he c la sse s t e ach e v ery th in g f ro m f e n cin g t o p ain tin g t o t a i c h i.) A nd i n th e postm orte m s, off-s ite re tr e ats th at Catm ull org an iz es afte r a film is co m ple te d , th e te am m em bers c ap tu re a n d s h are th e b ig gest ta k eaw ay s f ro m th e pro cess. Each g ath erin g b rin gs te am m em bers to geth er in a sa fe , fla t, h ig h-c an dor en vir o nm en t a n d le ts th em p oin t o ut p ro ble m s a n d g en era te id eas th at m ove th e te am , ste p w is e , to w ard a bette r so lu tio n. (N ot su rp ris in gly , C atm ull is a passio nate ad m ir e r of th e Ja p an ese co ncep t of ka iz e n , or co ntin ual im pro vem en t.) M ost o f th ese m eetin gs a ccess th e b ra in pow er o f th e e n tir e g ro up while m ain ta in in g t h e c re ativ e t e am ’s o w ners h ip o ver t h e p ro je ct. * Acco rd in gly , Catm ull has alm ost no dir e ct in volv em en t with cre ativ e decis io ns. T his i s b ecau se h e r e aliz es t h at ( 1 ) t h e t e am s a re i n a b ette r p ositio n t o so lv e pro ble m s, an d (2 ) a su ggestio n fro m a pow erfu l pers o n te n ds to be fo llo w ed . O ne o f h is fre q uen tly u se d p hra se s is “ N ow it’ s u p to y ou.” T his is als o w hy h e te n ds to le t a tr o uble d p ro je ct r o ll o n “ a b it to o lo ng,” a s h e p uts it, befo re p ullin g th e p lu g a n d/o r re sta rtin g it w ith a d if fe re n t te am . “ If y ou d o a re sta rt b efo re e v ery one is c o m ple te ly r e ad y, y ou r is k u pse ttin g th in gs,” h e s a y s. “Y ou h av e t o w ait u ntil i t’ s c le ar t o e v ery one t h at i t n eed s t o b e r e sta rte d .” Catm ull is c o ngen ita lly w ary o f m otto es a n d c atc h phra se s, a s h e b elie v es th ey can easily dis to rt re ality . N oneth ele ss a han dfu l of “E d-is m s” are heard in Pix ar’s c o rrid ors . H ere a re a f e w : Hir e p eo ple s m arte r t h an y ou. Fail e arly , f a il o fte n . Lis te n t o e v ery one’s i d eas. Face t o w ard t h e p ro ble m s. B-le v el w ork i s b ad f o r y our s o ul. It’ s m ore i m porta n t t o i n vest i n g ood p eo ple t h an i n g ood i d eas. You’ll n otic e th at, in co ntr a st to D an ny M ey er’s v iv id , sp ecif ic la n guag e, th ese a re d efia n tly u n-c atc h y, a lm ost z en -lik e in th eir p la in ness a n d u niv ers a lity . This re fle cts th e fu ndam en ta l d if fe re n ce b etw een le ad in g fo r p ro fic ie n cy an d le ad in g f o r c re ativ ity : M ey er n eed s p eo ple to k now a n d f e el e x actly w hat to d o, while C atm ull n eed s p eo ple t o d is c o ver t h at f o r t h em se lv es. Catm ull s p en ds h is d ay s r o vin g a ro und P ix ar a n d D is n ey , w atc h in g. H e h elp s onboard new em plo yees an d obse rv es B ra in T ru st m eetin gs, haw key ein g th e in te ra ctio ns f o r s ig ns o f in cip ie n t tr o uble o r s u ccess. H e c u ltiv ate s b ack -c h an nel co nvers a tio ns t o f in d o ut w hat’ s g oin g o n b eh in d t h e s c en es. H e w orrie s w hen h e se es aw kw ard sile n ces o r p eo ple av oid in g each o th er; h e cele b ra te s w hen a gro up ta k es in itia tiv e w ith out ask in g perm is sio n (s u ch as w hen a gro up of an im ato rs org an iz ed an im pro m ptu B oy S co ut– th em ed sle ep over on P ix ar’s la w n). H e d efe n ds te am s w hen th ey m ak e m is ta k es (a n d th ey c an m ak e s o m e ex tr e m ely e x pen siv e m is ta k es). If D an ny M ey er is a lig hth ouse , b eam in g s ig nals o f p urp ose , th en C atm ull is more l ik e t h e e n gin eer o f a s h ip . C atm ull d oesn ’t s te er t h e s h ip — he r o ves a ro und belo w deck s, c h eck in g t h e h ull f o r l e ak s, c h an gin g o ut a p is to n, a d din g a l ittle o il here a n d th ere . “ F or m e, m an ag in g is a c re ativ e a ct,” h e sa y s. “ It’ s p ro ble m so lv in g, a n d I l o ve d oin g t h at.” — If y ou w ere to c re ate a f ie ld e x perim en t to te st C atm ull’ s le ad ers h ip m eth ods, it mig ht c o nsis t o f th e fo llo w in g ste p s: (1 ) lo cate a str u gglin g m ovie stu dio ; (2 ) pla ce C atm ull in ch arg e an d, w ith out ch an gin g an y p ers o nnel, allo w h im to re en gin eer t h e g ro up’s c u ltu re . T hen y ou w ould w ait t o s e e w hat h ap pen ed . That, in fa ct, is pre cis e ly w hat hap pen ed in 2006. T he str u gglin g stu dio hap pen ed to b e W alt D is n ey A nim atio n. A fte r a ru n o f su ccess in th e 1 990s, Dis n ey h ad e n te re d a d ecad e-lo ng c re ativ e w aste la n d, p ro ducin g a s e rie s o f f ilm s th at w ere c o nsis te n tly fla t a n d d ull a n d, n ot c o in cid en ta lly , u npro fita b le . (T his str in g in clu ded The L ost E m pir e , B ro th er B ea r, T re a su re P la net, a n d Hom e o n th e R ange , w hic h f e atu re d a b urp in g c o w v oic ed b y R ose an ne B arr.) S o D is n ey CEO B ob Ig er atte m pte d th e co rp ora te eq uiv ale n t of a heart tr a n sp la n t, purc h asin g P ix ar an d p uttin g C atm ull an d L asse te r in ch arg e o f re v iv in g th e most s to rie d b ra n d i n a n im atio n— an d m ay be i n a ll o f e n te rta in m en t. Most o bse rv ers d id n’t e x pect th e c o m bin atio n to w ork o ut. F or s ta rte rs , th ere was th e siz e dif fe re n tia l. Pix ar w as re la tiv ely sm all, w hile D is n ey w as garg an tu an , a n d it w as h ard to im ag in e th at C atm ull a n d L asse te r c o uld c o ntr o l it. “ L ik e N em o sw allo w in g th e w hale ” w as th e w ay Fortu ne m ag azin e p ut it. Anoth er fa cto r w as th e g eo gra p hic ch alle n ge: P ix ar w as in E m ery ville , n ear Oak la n d, w hile D is n ey w as 3 50 m ile s a w ay in B urb an k. E nte rta in m en t- in dustr y his to ry s h ow ed th at th ese k in ds o f a cq uis itio ns w ere r is k y a n d o fte n h arm fu l to both p artie s. Afte r th e sa le w en t th ro ugh, C atm ull a n d L asse te r tr a v ele d to B urb an k a n d mad e a sp eech to D is n ey em plo yees. L asse te r w as in sp ir in g, ta lk in g ab out le g acy a n d re ju ven atio n. C atm ull, ty pic ally , sa id a b out tw o se n te n ces. “ W e’re not g oin g to tu rn D is n ey in to a c lo ne o f P ix ar. W hat w e’re g oin g to d o is b uild a stu dio o n y our t a le n t a n d p assio n.” They got to w ork , sta rtin g w ith physic al str u ctu re . A t th e tim e of th e acq uis itio n, D is n ey em plo yees w ere sc atte re d acro ss fo ur flo ors of a gia n t build in g, silo ed in gro ups th at re fle cte d th eir ex pertis e (a n im atio n, la y out, desig n) r a th er th an th eir c o lla b ora tiv e f u nctio n. C atm ull h ead ed u p a r e b uild th at sm oosh ed all th e cre ativ e an d te ch nic al peo ple to geth er aro und a cen tr a l gath erin g p la ce c alle d th e C affe in e P atc h . H e th en p ut h is a n d L asse te r’s o ffic es (th ey c o m mitte d t o s p en din g t w o d ay s a w eek a t D is n ey ) n ear t h e c en te r. Nex t C atm ull fo cu se d on cre ativ e str u ctu re . D is n ey had been usin g th e co nven tio nal film dev elo pm en t m odel, w hic h w ork ed as fo llo w s: (1 ) stu dio ex ecu tiv es c re ate d ev elo pm en t t e am s, w hic h a re c h arg ed w ith g en era tin g s to rie s; (2 ) stu dio e x ecu tiv es e v alu ate th ose id eas, d ecid e w hic h w ould b e d ev elo ped , an d a ssig n d ir e cto rs to e ach o ne; ( 3 ) d ir e cto rs m ak e th e m ovie s, a n d e x ecu tiv es ev alu ate e arly v ers io ns, o ffe r n ote s, a n d o ccasio nally c re ate c o m petitio ns c alle d “b ak e-o ffs ” t o d ecid e w hic h f ilm i s r e ad y f o r r e le ase . Catm ull flip ped th at sy ste m o n its h ead , re m ovin g c re ativ e p ow er fro m th e ex ecu tiv es a n d p la cin g it in th e h an ds o f th e d ir e cto rs . I n th e n ew s tr u ctu re , th e dir e cto rs w ere re sp onsib le fo r co m in g u p w ith th eir o w n id eas an d p itc h in g th em , ra th er th an b ein g assig ned th em b y stu dio ex ecu tiv es. T he jo b o f th e ex ecu tiv es w as n ot to b e a ll- d ecid in g b osse s b ut ra th er to s u pport th e d ir e cto rs an d th eir te am s a s th ey u nderto ok th e p ain fu l jo urn ey fro m id ea to w ork ab le co ncep t t o f in is h ed f ilm . E arly i n t h e t r a n sitio n, C atm ull i n vite d D is n ey d ir e cto rs an d e x ecu tiv es t o P ix ar t o o bse rv e a B ra in T ru st m eetin g. T hey w atc h ed t h e t e am work t o geth er t o p ic k a m ovie a p art a n d d o t h e h ard w ork o f r e b uild in g i t. The c h an ge in th e e n erg y a t D is n ey w as im med ia te . D is n ey d ir e cto rs c alle d it a b re ath o f f re sh a ir a n d l ik en ed i t t o t h e f a ll o f t h e B erlin W all. I t w as a m om en t of hope, re in fo rc ed by th e fa ct th at th e D is n ey te am ’s su bse q uen t m ovie im pro vem en t m eetin gs ( th ey d ubbed t h em t h e S to ry T ru st) w ere j u dged t o b e t h e best a n d m ost u se fu l a n yone t h ere h ad e x perie n ced . Catm ull, h ow ev er, w asn ’t as q uic k to cele b ra te , k now in g th at re al ch an ge wasn ’t g oin g to h ap pen o vern ig ht. “ It ta k es tim e,” h e sa y s. “ Y ou h av e to g o th ro ugh s o m e f a ilu re s a n d s o m e s c re w -u ps, a n d s u rv iv e th em , a n d s u pport e ach oth er th ro ugh th em . A nd th en a fte r th at h ap pen s, y ou re ally b eg in to tr u st o ne an oth er.” Whic h is w hat hap pen ed . T he fir s t fe w film s afte r th e acq uis itio n w ere im med ia te ly b ette r, sc o rin g im pro ved re v ie w s as w ell as b ox o ffic e su ccess. Then in 2 010, D is n ey ’s te am s b eg an c lic k in g a t a P ix aria n le v el, w ith Tangle d ($ 591 m illio n in w orld w id e b ox o ffic e), Wre ck-It R alp h ( $ 471 m illio n), Fro ze n ($ 1.2 b illio n), Big H ero 6 ( $ 657 m illio n), a n d Zooto pia ( $ 931 m illio n). C atm ull note s th at th e tr a n sfo rm atio n h ap pen ed w ith v ir tu ally n o tu rn over. “ T he p eo ple who m ad e th ese film s are th e sa m e p eo ple w ho w ere th ere w hen th ey w ere fa ilin g,” h e sa y s. “W e p ut in so m e n ew sy ste m s, th ey le arn ed n ew w ay s o f in te ra ctin g, an d th ey ch an ged th eir b eh av io r, an d n ow th ey are a co m ple te ly dif fe re n t g ro up o f p eo ple w hen t h ey w ork t o geth er.” We p ut in s o m e n ew s y ste m s, a nd th ey le a rn ed n ew w ays o f in te ra ctin g. It’ s str a n ge to th in k th at a w av e o f c re ativ ity a n d in novatio n c an b e u nle ash ed b y so m eth in g as m undan e as ch an gin g sy ste m s an d le arn in g new w ay s of in te ra ctin g. B ut it’ s tr u e, b ecau se b uild in g c re ativ e p urp ose is n ’t re ally a b out cre ativ ity . I t’ s a b out b uild in g o w ners h ip , p ro vid in g s u pport, a n d a lig nin g g ro up en erg y to w ard th e a rd uous, e rro r-fille d , u ltim ate ly fu lf illin g jo urn ey o f m ak in g so m eth in g n ew . * You s e e t h is p atte rn w ith m an y h ig hly c re ativ e g ro ups, s u ch a s L ock heed ’s f a m ous S kunk W ork s ( w hic h desig ned t h e U -2 , t h e B la ck bir d , t h e N ig hth aw k, a n d s e v era l o th er l e g en dary p la n es i n r e co rd t im e), Xero x’s P A RC ( w hic h i n ven te d t h e c o m pute r i n te rfa ce t h at S te v e J o bs “ b orro w ed ” f o r A pple ), G oogle X , Pro cte r & G am ble ’s C la y S tr e et, a n d M atte l’ s P ro je ct P la ty pus, a ll o f w hic h a re e sse n tia lly t h e s a m e pla ce: p hysic ally d is ta n t f ro m t h e p are n t g ro up, n onhie ra rc h ic al, a n d g iv en m ax im um a u to nom y. H ere ’s a s u rp ris in g f a ct a b out s u ccessfu l c u ltu re s: m an y w ere f o rg ed i n m om en ts o f c ris is . P ix ar’s c ris is o ccu rre d in 1 998 w hen it s e t o ut to m ak e a s tr a ig ht- to – v id eo se q uel to th e h ig hly a ccla im ed Toy S to ry . T he stu dio e m bark ed o n th e p ro je ct p re su m in g it w ould b e a re la tiv ely s im ple p ro cess— afte r a ll, h ow h ard c o uld a s e q uel b e? B ut e arly v ers io ns w ere a w fu l. T he s to ry la ck ed e m otio n, th e c h ara cte rs w ere fla t, a n d th e film la ck ed th e s p ark le a n d h eart o f th e o rig in al. C atm ull a n d L asse te r r e aliz ed t h is w as a q uestio n o f P ix ar’s c o re p urp ose . W as i t a s tu dio th at d id a v era g e w ork o r o ne th at a im ed f o r g re atn ess? A t th eir u rg in g, P ix ar s c ra p ped th e e arly v ers io ns a n d s ta rte d o ver a t th e e le v en th h our, a im in g f o r a fu ll th eatr ic al re le ase in ste ad o f v id eo . T his su ccessfu l la st- m in ute p ush c ry sta lliz ed P ix ar’s i d en tity a n d r e su lte d i n t h e i n ven tio n o f m an y o f i ts s ig natu re c o lla b ora tiv e s y ste m s ( in clu din g t h e B ra in T ru st) . The S E A Ls e x perie n ced a sim ila r m om en t in 1 983, d urin g th e in vasio n o f G re n ad a. T he m is sio n h ad b een s tr a ig htf o rw ard : O ne te am w ould p ara ch ute in to t h e s e a, s w im t o s h ore , a n d c ap tu re G re n ad a’s o nly r a d io a n te n na. U nfo rtu nate ly , a c o m bin atio n o f w eath er, p oor c o m munic atio n, a n d b ad d ecis io ns le d to th e t e am b ein g d ro pped a t n ig ht i n a s to rm , o verlo ad ed w ith g ear. T he r e su lt w as t h e d ro w nin g d eath s o f fo ur S E A Ls— an d a su bse q uen t re b uild in g o f th e g ro up’s d ecis io n-m ak in g a n d c o m munic atio ns s y ste m s. Dan ny M ey er’s e arly d ay s a s a r e sta u ra te u r, to o, w ere p unctu ate d b y a s tr in g o f n ear-d is a ste rs . “ W e n early k ille d a c u sto m er w hen a lig ht f ix tu re f e ll o ut o f a w all,” h e s a y s. “ A noth er tim e I g ot in to a fis tf ig ht w ith a c u sto m er w ho’d h ad t o o m uch to d rin k. A nd I’m n ot ta lk in g ju st a sh ovin g m atc h . It w as a re al f is tf ig ht i n f ro nt o f t h e w hole r e sta u ra n t. H e p unch ed m e i n t h e j a w a n d s la m med m y h ead in a d oor, a n d I k ic k ed h im in th e n uts . L et’ s ju st s a y th at w e’re lu ck y th at t h e I n te rn et d id n’t e x is t i n t h ose d ay s.” The d if fe re n ce w ith s u ccessfu l c u ltu re s s e em s to b e th at th ey u se th e c ris is to cry sta lliz e th eir p urp ose . W hen le ad ers o f th ose g ro ups r e fle ct o n th ose f a ilu re s now , th ey ex pre ss g ra titu de (a n d so m etim es ev en n osta lg ic d esir e ) fo r th ose mom en ts , a s p ain fu l a s t h ey w ere , b ecau se t h ey w ere t h e c ru cib le t h at h elp ed t h e gro up d is c o ver w hat i t c o uld b e. This g iv es u s in sig ht in to b uild in g p urp ose . It’ s n ot a s sim ple a s c arv in g a mis sio n s ta te m en t in g ra n ite o r e n co ura g in g e v ery one to r e cite f ro m a h ym nal o f catc h phra se s. I t’ s a n ev er-e n din g p ro cess o f tr y in g, f a ilin g, r e fle ctin g, a n d a b ove all, l e arn in g. H ig h-p urp ose e n vir o nm en ts d on’t d esc en d o n g ro ups f ro m o n h ig h; th ey a re d ug o ut o f th e g ro und, o ver a n d o ver, a s a g ro up n av ig ate s its p ro ble m s to geth er a n d e v olv es t o m eet t h e c h alle n ges o f a f a st- c h an gin g w orld . Here a re a f e w i d eas t o h elp y ou d o t h at. Nam e a nd R ank Y our P rio rit ie s: I n o rd er to m ove to w ard a ta rg et, y ou m ust f ir s t h av e a ta rg et. L is tin g y our p rio ritie s, w hic h m ean s w re stlin g w ith th e c h oic es th at defin e y our i d en tity , i s t h e f ir s t s te p . M ost s u ccessfu l g ro ups e n d u p w ith a s m all han dfu l of prio ritie s (fiv e or fe w er), an d m an y, not co in cid en ta lly , en d up pla cin g th eir in -g ro up re la tio nsh ip s— how th ey tr e at o ne a n oth er— at th e to p o f th e l is t. T his r e fle cts t h e t r u th t h at m an y s u ccessfu l g ro ups r e aliz e: T heir g re ate st pro je ct is build in g an d su sta in in g th e gro up its e lf . If th ey get th eir ow n re la tio nsh ip s r ig ht, e v ery th in g e ls e w ill f o llo w . Be T en T im es a s C le ar A bout Y our P rio rit ie s a s Y ou T hin k Y ou S hould B e: A w hile b ack In c. mag azin e a sk ed e x ecu tiv es a t s ix h undre d c o m pan ie s to e stim ate th e p erc en ta g e of th eir w ork fo rc e w ho co uld n am e th e co m pan y’s to p th re e p rio ritie s. T he ex ecu tiv es p re d ic te d th at 6 4 p erc en t w ould b e a b le to n am e th em . W hen In c. th en a sk ed e m plo yees to n am e th e p rio ritie s, o nly 2 p erc en t c o uld d o s o . T his is not th e e x cep tio n b ut th e ru le . L ead ers a re in here n tly b ia se d to p re su m e th at ev ery one in th e g ro up s e es th in gs a s th ey d o, w hen in fa ct th ey d on’t. T his is why it’ s necessa ry to dra stic ally overc o m munic ate prio ritie s. T he le ad ers I vis ite d w ith w ere n ot sh y a b out th is . S ta te m en ts o f p rio ritie s w ere p ain te d o n walls , s ta m ped o n e m ails , in can te d in s p eech es, d ro pped in to c o nvers a tio n, a n d re p eate d o ver a n d o ver u ntil t h ey b ecam e p art o f t h e o xygen . One w ay to cre ate aw are n ess is to m ak e a hab it of re g ula rly te stin g th e co m pan y’s v alu es a n d p urp ose , a s J a m es B urk e d id w ith th e C re d o c h alle n ge. This in volv es c re atin g c o nvers a tio ns th at e n co ura g e p eo ple to g ra p ple w ith th e big q uestio ns: What a re w e a bout? W here a re w e h ea ded ? M an y o f t h e l e ad ers I met se em ed to do th is in stin ctiv ely , cu ltiv atin g w hat m ig ht be calle d a pro ductiv e dis sa tis fa ctio n. They w ere m ild ly su sp ic io us of su ccess. They pre su m ed th at th ere w ere o th er, b ette r w ay s o f d oin g th in gs, an d th ey w ere unafra id o f ch an ge. T hey p re su m ed th ey d id n’t h av e all th e an sw ers an d so co nsta n tly s o ught g uid an ce a n d c la rity . Fig ure O ut W here Y our G ro up A im s fo r P ro fic ie ncy a nd W here It A im s fo r C re ativ it y : E very gro up s k ill c an b e s o rte d in to o ne o f tw o b asic ty pes: s k ills o f p ro fic ie n cy a n d sk ills o f c re ativ ity . Skills o f p ro fic ie n cy a re a b out d oin g a ta sk th e s a m e w ay , e v ery s in gle tim e. They are ab out d eliv erin g m ach in e-lik e re lia b ility , an d th ey te n d to ap ply in dom ain s in w hic h th e goal beh av io rs are cle arly defin ed , su ch as se rv ic e. Build in g p urp ose to p erfo rm th ese s k ills is lik e b uild in g a v iv id m ap : Y ou w an t to s p otlig ht t h e g oal a n d p ro vid e c ry sta l- c le ar d ir e ctio ns t o t h e c h eck poin ts a lo ng th e w ay . W ay s t o d o t h at i n clu de: • Fill t h e g ro up’s w in dsh ie ld w ith c le ar, a ccessib le m odels o f e x celle n ce. • Pro vid e h ig h-re p etitio n, h ig h-fe ed back t r a in in g. • Build v iv id , m em ora b le r u le s o f t h um b (if X , t h en Y ). • Spotlig ht a n d h onor t h e f u ndam en ta ls o f t h e s k ill. Cre ativ e sk ills , o n th e o th er h an d, a re a b out e m pow erin g a g ro up to d o th e hard w ork of build in g so m eth in g th at has nev er ex is te d befo re . G en era tin g purp ose in th ese are as is lik e su pply in g an ex ped itio n: Y ou n eed to p ro vid e su pport, f u el, a n d to ols a n d to s e rv e a s a p ro te ctiv e p re se n ce th at e m pow ers th e te am d oin g t h e w ork . S om e w ay s t o d o t h at i n clu de: • Keen ly a tte n d t o t e am c o m positio n a n d d ynam ic s. • Defin e, r e in fo rc e, a n d r e le n tle ssly p ro te ct t h e t e am ’s c re ativ e a u to nom y. • Mak e i t s a fe t o f a il a n d t o g iv e f e ed back . • Cele b ra te h ugely w hen t h e g ro up t a k es i n itia tiv e. Most g ro ups, o f c o urs e , c o nsis t o f a c o m bin atio n o f th ese s k ill ty pes, a s th ey aim f o r p ro fic ie n cy in c erta in a re as a n d c re ativ ity in o th ers . T he k ey is to c le arly id en tif y t h ese a re as a n d t a ilo r l e ad ers h ip a cco rd in gly . Em bra ce th e U se o f C atc h phra se s: W hen y ou lo ok a t s u ccessfu l g ro ups, a lo t o f th eir in te rn al la n guag e fe atu re s catc h phra se s th at o fte n so und o bvio us, ra h -ra h , o r co rn y. M an y o f u s in stin ctiv ely d is m is s th em a s c u ltis h ja rg on. B ut th is is a mis ta k e. T heir o ccasio nally ch eesy o bvio usn ess is n ot a b ug— it’ s a fe atu re . Their c la rity , g ra tin g t o t h e o uts id er’s e ar, i s p re cis e ly w hat h elp s t h em f u nctio n. The tr ic k to b uild in g e ffe ctiv e c atc h phra se s is to k eep th em sim ple , a ctio n- orie n te d , a n d f o rth rig ht: “ C re ate f u n a n d a l ittle w eir d ness” ( Z ap pos), “ T alk l e ss, do m ore ” ( ID EO ), “ W ork h ard , b e n ic e” ( K IP P), “ P ound t h e r o ck ” ( S an A nto nio Spurs ), “ L eav e th e je rs e y in a b ette r p la ce” (N ew Z eala n d A ll- B la ck s), “ C re ate ra v es fo r g uests ” (D an ny M ey er’s re sta u ra n ts ). T hey ’re h ard ly p oetr y , b ut th ey sh are a n a ctio n-b ase d c la rity . T hey a re n ’t g en tle s u ggestio ns s o m uch a s c le ar re m in ders , c ris p n udges i n t h e d ir e ctio n t h e g ro up w an ts t o g o. Measu re W hat R eally M atte rs : T he m ain ch alle n ge to build in g a cle ar se n se of purp ose is th at th e w orld is clu tte re d w ith nois e , dis tr a ctio ns, an d en dle ss alte rn ativ e p urp ose s. O ne so lu tio n is to c re ate sim ple u niv ers a l m easu re s th at pla ce fo cu s o n w hat m atte rs . A g ood e x am ple h ap pen ed in th e e arly d ay s o f Zap pos, w hen T ony H sie h n otic ed t h at c all c en te r w ork ers w ere m easu re d b y t h e num ber o f c alls th ey h an dle d p er h our. H e r e aliz ed th at th is tr a d itio nal m easu re was a t o dds w ith t h e g ro up’s p urp ose a n d t h at i t w as d riv in g u nw an te d b eh av io rs (h aste a n d b re v ity , f o r s ta rte rs ). S o h e b an is h ed th at m etr ic a n d r e p la ced it w ith Pers o nal Em otio nal Connectio ns (P E C s), or cre atin g a bond outs id e th e co nvers a tio n ab out th e p ro duct. It’ s im possib le , o f co urs e , to m easu re P E C s pre cis e ly , but th e goal here is not pre cis io n; it is to cre ate aw are n ess an d alig nm en t an d to dir e ct beh av io r to w ard th e gro up’s m is sio n. So w hen a cu sto m er s e rv ic e a g en t s p en t a c o m pan y-re co rd 1 0 h ours a n d 2 9 m in ute s o n a call, Z ap pos c ele b ra te d a n d s e n t o ut a p re ss r e le ase . * Use A rtif a cts : If y ou tr a v ele d fro m M ars to E arth to v is it su ccessfu l c u ltu re s, it would n ot ta k e y ou lo ng to f ig ure o ut w hat th ey w ere a b out. T heir e n vir o nm en ts are r ic h ly e m bed ded w ith a rtif a cts t h at e m body t h eir p urp ose a n d i d en tity . T hese artif a cts v ary w id ely : th e b attle g ear o f so ld ie rs k ille d in c o m bat a t th e N av y SE A L h ead quarte rs ; th e O sc ar tr o phie s a cco m pan ie d b y h an d-d ra w n s k etc h es o f th e o rig in al c o ncep ts a t P ix ar; a n d th e ro ck a n d s le d geh am mer b eh in d g la ss a t th e S an A nto nio S purs pra ctic e fa cility , em bodyin g th e te am ’s catc h phra se “P ound t h e r o ck ”— but t h ey a ll r e in fo rc e t h e s a m e s ig nal: This i s w hat m atte rs . Focu s o n B ar-S ettin g B ehavio rs : O ne c h alle n ge o f b uild in g p urp ose is to tr a n sla te ab str a ct id eas ( v alu es, m is sio n) in to c o ncre te te rm s. O ne w ay s u ccessfu l g ro ups do t h is i s b y s p otlig htin g a s in gle t a sk a n d u sin g i t t o d efin e t h eir i d en tity a n d s e t th e b ar f o r t h eir e x pecta tio ns. One g ood e x am ple i s t h e m en ’s h ock ey t e am a t Q uin nip ia c U niv ers ity , a s m all sc h ool in H am den , C onnectic u t. T he te am fie ld s fe w h ig hly re cru ite d p la y ers , yet it h as sp en t th e la st h alf -d ecad e a s o ne o f th e n atio n’s to p-ra n ked te am s. Quin nip ia c’s co ach , R an d Peck nold , has built a cu ltu re aro und a sp ecif ic beh av io r h e c alls “ F orty fo r F orty .” T he p hra se re fe rs to b ack -c h eck in g, w hic h mean s r u sh in g b ack t o t h e d efe n siv e e n d i n r e sp onse t o t h e o th er t e am ’s a tta ck — basic ally , c h asin g th em d ow n. B ack -c h eck in g h ap pen s a ro und fo rty tim es p er gam e, a n d i t i s P eck nold ’s g oal t h at h is p la y ers g o a ll- o ut w ith 1 00 p erc en t e ffo rt on e ach o ne— in o th er w ord s, F orty f o r F orty . I t i s n ot e asy t o d o. B ack -c h eck in g is e x hau stin g, r e q uir e s k een a tte n tiv en ess, a n d— here ’s th e k ey — ra re ly m ak es a dif fe re n ce i n t h e g am e. “It a lm ost n ev er p ay s o ff,” P eck nold s a y s. “ Y ou c an b ack -c h eck th ir ty -n in e tim es in a ro w , a n d it d oesn ’t m ak e a n y d if fe re n ce a t a ll in th e p la y . B ut th e fo rtie th tim e, m ay be s o m eth in g h ap pen s. Y ou g et a s tic k in , y ou s te al th e p uck , you s to p a g oal, o r y ou c re ate a tu rn over th at le ad s to a g oal. T hat o ne b ack – ch eck d oesn ’t s h ow u p a n yw here in th e s ta t b ooks, b ut it c an c h an ge a g am e. That’ s w hy w e a re F orty f o r F orty . T hat’ s w ho w e a re .” Quin nip ia c te am m em bers ta lk a b out F orty fo r F orty a ll th e tim e. T hey ta lk ab out it d urin g p ra ctic e, d urin g g am es, a n d d urin g P eck nold ’s re g ula r o ne-o n- one m eetin gs w ith p la y ers . A nd o n th ose r a re m om en ts w hen a s u ccessfu l b ack – ch eck h ap pen s i n a g am e, P eck nold s p otlig hts t h e m om en t. “T he n ex t d ay I g et it o n v id eo , a n d I s e t it a ll u p,” h e s a y s. “ I’m n ot o ne to dro p f -b om bs a l o t w ith t h e t e am — you g otta b e r e ally c are fu l w here y ou d o t h at. But I d o it h ere . I’ll c u e u p th e ta p e o f th e b ack -c h eck a n d s e t it u p lik e it’ s a movie . I’ll sa y , ‘W atc h S hutty [fo rw ard T om my S hutt] rig ht here . L ook at fu ck in g S hutty g o. L ook a t h im ta k e th is g uy o ut.’ A nd e v ery body g oes n uts . Even if S hutty ’s b ack -c h eck le ad s to a g oal, I n ev er ta lk a b out th e g uy w ho sc o re d th e g oal o r th e g uy w ho h ad th e a ssis t— th ey d on’t e v en e x is t. A ll I ta lk ab out i s S hutty a n d t h is g re at b ack -c h eck , a n d h ow i t h ap pen ed b ecau se w e w ere Forty fo r F orty . Y ou can se e all th e g uys fe elin g it, an d th e n ex t tim e w e pra ctic e, e v ery body i s o n i t, d oin g i t, l o vin g i t.” Peck nold is n ot th e o nly le ad er to b uild p urp ose a ro und s p otlig htin g a s m all, effo rtf u l b eh av io r. A t h is r e sta u ra n ts , D an ny M ey er i s k now n f o r m ovin g t h e s a lt sh ak er if it sh if ts e v en slig htly fro m its sp ot a t th e ta b le ’s c en te r. T each ers a t KIP P In fin ity in H arle m s till ta lk a b out h ow fo under D av e L ev in w ould p la ce each stu den t’ s w ate r bottle in m illim ete r-a ccu ra te arra n gem en t w ith th eir note b ooks o n th e f ir s t d ay o f s c h ool. P ix ar p uts h undre d s o f h ours o f e ffo rt in to th e t e ch nic al a n d s to ry te llin g q uality o f t h e s h ort, s ta n d-a lo ne a n im ate d f ilm s t h at ru n b efo re e ach o f its f e atu re s. T he s h orts lo se m oney , b ut th ey p ay o ff in o th er way s. T hey in vest in th e s tu dio ’s y oung ta le n t, c re ate e x perim en ta tio n, a n d m ost im porta n t, s h ow case t h e a tte n tio n a n d e x celle n ce t h ey c h an nel i n to e v ery t a sk . I n oth er w ord s, t h ese s m all e ffo rts a re p ow erfu l b ecau se t h ey t r a n sm it, a m plif y , a n d cele b ra te t h e p urp ose o f t h e w hole g ro up. * The c all c o vere d a w id e v arie ty o f s u bje cts , i n clu din g m ovie s, f a v orite f o ods, a n d w hat i t’ s l ik e t o l iv e i n Las V eg as. I t r e su lte d i n t h e s a le o f o ne p air o f U gg b oots . W ritin g a b ook, l ik e e v ery j o urn ey , l e av es a p ers o n c h an ged . A s I w ork ed o n t h is p ro je ct o ver th e p ast fo ur y ears , I fo und m yse lf n otic in g su btle m om en ts o f c o nnectio n th at I h ad p re v io usly m is se d . I a p pre cia te d h ow c erta in p la ces— th e l o cal b ak ery , m y c h ild re n ’s s c h ool, th e g as s ta tio n— use d s m all in te ra ctio ns to b uild a c o hesiv e c u ltu re . I f o und m yse lf a d m ir in g le ad ers w ho o pen ed u p a b out t h eir s h ortc o m in gs to c re ate h onest c o nvers a tio ns. A t h om e, I p are n te d a little d if fe re n tly : I ta lk ed le ss a n d f o cu se d m ore o n s e ek in g w ay s to c re ate b elo ngin g. ( C ard g am es a re th e a b so lu te b est.) It w asn ’t a s if I w ere s u dden ly g ra ced w ith X -ra y v is io n; i t w as m ore l ik e l e arn in g a s p ort. F ir s t y ou a re c lu m sy ; t h en a fte r a w hile , y ou g et b ette r. One p la ce I u se d th ese s k ills m ost w as in c o ach in g a te am . I t w asn ’t a s p orts t e am b ut a t e am o f w rite rs a t t h e R uffin g M onte sso ri m id dle s c h ool i n C le v ela n d H eig hts , O hio , w hic h m y tw o y oungest d au ghte rs a tte n ded . T he w ritin g te am c o m pete d in P ow er o f th e P en , a sta te w id e c o m petitio n. S tu den ts p ra ctic e a ll y ear fo r a o ne-d ay to urn am en t at w hic h th ey are g iv en th re e sh ort p ro m pts ( “ K eep in g t h e S ecre t,” s a y , o r “ B urie d T re asu re ”) t o p ro duce t h re e s to rie s, w hic h j u dges th en s c o re a n d ra n k. It’ s a fu n a n d in sp ir in g e v en t, b ecau se it c o m bin es t h e c re ativ ity o f w ritin g w ith t h e s c o re b oard a d re n alin e o f s p orts . It’ s a ls o a n e v en t a t w hic h R uffin g h ad h is to ric ally s tr u ggle d . I n th e p re v io us d ecad e ( I’d b een c o ach in g f o r t w o y ears ), i ts s tu den ts h ad o ccasio nally a d van ced p ast th e fir s t- ro und to urn am en t b ut ra re ly g ot m uch fu rth er. T his re su lt m ad e s e n se — afte r a ll, R uffin g is tin y, c o nsis tin g o f o nly fo rty stu den ts , c o m petin g a g ain st G olia th -s iz e s c h ools f ro m a ro und t h e s ta te . B ut i t m ad e m e w onder i f o ur t e am c o uld d o b ette r. S o in 2 014, a s a n e x perim en t, I d ecid ed to a p ply so m e i d eas f ro m t h e r e se arc h f o r t h is b ook. Our fir s t w eek ly p ra ctic e se ssio n in O cto ber d re w n in e stu den ts . C ath erin e, Cars o n, Ellie , V ala , C aro lin e, N ats u m i, D av id , N ath an , an d Zoe w ere an en erg etic g ro up w ith a r a n ge o f s k ill le v els a n d m otiv atio ns. V ala a n d E llie w ere co nfid en t an d ex perie n ced w rite rs , w hile C ars o n an d C aro lin e w ere m ore hesita n t, ju st sta rtin g to str e tc h th eir c re ativ e m usc le s. I w as h esita n t, to o. In years p ast, I’d ta k en a tr a d itio nal (i.e ., a u th orita tiv e) a p pro ach to c o ach in g th e te am : I d id a lo t o f s p eak in g, g av e le ctu re -lik e ta lk s, th en p ro vid ed f e ed back o n th eir p ra ctic e s to rie s. I n te ach in g p arla n ce, I w as “ th e s a g e o n th e s ta g e,” a n d it was a c o m fo rta b le p la ce t o s ta n d. T his y ear, h ow ev er, w ould b e d if fe re n t. Fir s t, I c h an ged th e se atin g a rra n gem en t. In y ears p ast w e h ad sa t in lo ose pro xim ity a t a s c atte rin g o f s m all t a b le s. N ow I s h oved f o ur s m all t a b le s t o geth er to fo rm o ne ta b le ju st b ig e n ough to fit th e te n o f u s, e lb ow to e lb ow . T hen , ra th er th an la u nch in g in to a le ctu re ab out good w ritin g, I ask ed th e te am , “W hat’ s y our fa v orite b ook rig ht n ow ?” W e w en t aro und th e cir c le . (H arry Potte r m ad e m ore t h an o ne a p peara n ce, a s d id Hunger G am es. ) Then I a sk ed w hy t h ose b ooks w ere s o g ood. “B ecau se h e’s an o rp han ,” E llie sa id . “P re tty m uch ev ery g ood sto ry h as orp han s.” “B ecau se th ere ’s a n in te n se w ar h ap pen in g,” N ath an s a id . “ A ll th ese p eo ple are d yin g, a n d i t’ s b ru ta l a n d y ou d on’t w an t t h em t o d ie .” “B ecau se i t’ s j u st r e ally , r e ally g ood,” C ars o n s a id . “W hy?” I a sk ed . Cars o n sw allo w ed . H e w as a ta ll, sle n der k id , w ith la rg e d ark ey es an d a fo rm al m an ner. H e c h ose h is w ord s c are fu lly . “ B ecau se th e sto ry m ak es y ou worry a b out t h em ,” h e s a id . “Y es,” I s a id . I g av e h im a f is t b um p, a n d h e s m ile d . I a sk ed t h e t e am a n oth er q uestio n: “ W hat d o y ou not l ik e a b out w ritin g?” Answ ers c am e fa st: T hey d id n’t lik e c o m in g u p w ith id eas to w rite a b out. Som etim es s to rie s c am e e asily , b ut o fte n th ey d id n’t, a n d th ey w ere le ft s ta rin g at a b la n k p ag e, w onderin g w hat t o w rite a b out. “I ju st g et stu ck so m etim es,” C ath erin e sa id , sp eak in g fo r th e g ro up. “ I g et partw ay , a n d t h en I c an ’t t h in k o f a n yth in g.” I to ld th e te am I had so m eth in g to sh are w ith th em . I re ach ed in to m y back pack a n d, w ith a s h am ele ssly d ra m atic f lo uris h , p ro duced a s ta ck o f p ap er— early d ra fts o f t h is b ook. T hey t o ok t h e s h eets e ag erly . T hey k new I w as a w rite r, an d t h ey w ere e x pectin g t o f in d e x am ple s o f f a u ltle ss p ro se . But a s t h ey r e ad , t h ey s a w t h at t h e p ag es w ere n ’t p erfe ct. T o t h e c o ntr a ry , t h ey were r id dle d w ith h an dw ritte n e d its , l in e-o uts , a n d f ix es s c rib ble d i n t h e m arg in s. Entir e p ag es h ad b een c ro sse d o ut. It d id n’t lo ok lik e th e w ork o f a p ublis h ed write r. I t l o oked l ik e a s c h ool a ssig nm en t t h at h ad e arn ed a r e so undin g F . “T his i s y ours ? ” N ath an a sk ed . “Y es,” I s a id . “A re t h ere t h is m an y c h an ges e v ery t im e?” V ala a sk ed . “E very t im e,” I s a id . I to ld th em th at n oth in g I e v er w ro te w as p erfe ct; th at I o fte n g ot s tu ck a n d str u ggle d th ro ugh th e p ro cess o f b uild in g a s to ry . I to ld th em I te n ded to m ak e lo ts o f m is ta k es an d th at n otic in g an d fix in g th ose m is ta k es w as w here th e writin g i m pro ved . Then I g av e th e te am a p ro m pt. A fte r th ey ’d w ritte n fo r fif te en m in ute s, I ask ed th em to p ut th eir p en s d ow n a n d e x pla in ed a s im ple ru le : E very one w as en co ura g ed to re ad th eir sto ry alo ud, an d ev ery one w as en co ura g ed to g iv e fe ed back . S om e o f th e s tu den ts w ere h esita n t a b out re ad in g th eir s to rie s a lo ud, an d th ey la ck ed th e la n guag e to critiq ue o th er sto rie s. B ut slo w ly , as w eek s passe d , w e g ot b ette r. C aro lin e, w ho h ad n’t w an te d to re ad h er s to rie s a t fir s t, sta rte d to sh are m ore o pen ly , b rin gin g u s in to th e sc i- fi w orld s sh e lik ed to cre ate . N ats u m i, in itia lly hesita n t ab out offe rin g critic is m to her te am mate s, sta rte d w eig hin g i n w ith w arm , p oin te d g uid an ce. We a d opte d a “ W hat W ork ed W ell/E ven B ette r If” fo rm at fo r th e fe ed back se ssio ns: fir s t cele b ra tin g th e sto ry ’s positiv es, th en offe rin g id eas fo r im pro vem en t. O ver tim e th e ex ch an ges str e n gth en ed in to hab its ; th e gro up sto pped b eh av in g l ik e a t y pic al c la ss a n d s ta rte d b eh av in g l ik e t h e k in derg artn ers in th e sp ag hetti- m ars h m allo w c h alle n ge: w ork in g sh ould er to sh ould er, fix in g pro ble m s, t h in kin g a s o ne. Mean w hile I f o cu se d o n s u pportin g t h ose i n te ra ctio ns. W hen s o m eo ne w ro te a su ccessfu l s to ry o r o ffe re d a p artic u la rly in cis iv e c o m men t, I d id n’t s a y a w ord but ra th er gav e a fis t bum p. L ik e D an ny M ey er, I flo oded th e zo ne w ith catc h phra se s to g uid e th em th ro ugh th e w ritin g-a n d-fix in g p ro cess. O ne w as “P ow er o f t h e P ro ble m ,” w hic h r e m in ded t h em t h at m ost e ffe ctiv e s to rie s c o nsis t of c h ara cte rs str u gglin g w ith h uge p ro ble m s, th e b ig ger, th e b ette r. (A fte r a ll, Cap ta in A hab d oesn ’t c h ase m in now s.) A noth er w as “ U se Y our C am era ,” w hic h re m in ded th em to c o ntr o l th e p oin t o f v ie w . (D o y ou w an t to ta k e th e re ad er in sid e th e c h ara cte r’s m in d, o r to o bse rv e th em fro m a b ove?) I to ld th em o ver an d o ver: “ E very s to ry s h ould h av e V OW : v oic e, o bsta cle s, a n d w an tin g. T he big ger th e p ro ble m , th e b ette r th e sto ry . Y ou g uys a re c re ativ e a th le te s— you hav e t o h elp e ach o th er g et b ette r.” For m e, in s o m e w ay s, th is c o ach in g s ty le w as m ore d em an din g. It re q uir e d more r e fle ctio n, th in kin g a b out w ay s to ig nite d is c u ssio n a n d to m otiv ate . I a ls o str u ggle d w ith th e ch alle n ge of not doin g th in gs: allo w in g co nvers a tio ns to occasio nally ra m ble o ff-to pic in ste ad o f le ap in g in to se iz e co ntr o l. In o th er way s, h ow ev er, th e n ew sty le w as easie r. In ste ad o f fo cu sin g o n co nvey in g know le d ge ( w hic h d em an ded lo ts o f p re p ara tio n a n d p re cis io n), I c o uld s e rv e a s a g uid e, le ttin g th e g ro up f u nctio n, w atc h in g f o r m om en ts w here I c o uld s te p in an d, w ith a p hra se o r b ody la n guag e, c re ate s o m e a w are n ess o r, b ette r, h ig hlig ht a s u ccessfu l c h oic e t h ey h ad m ad e. The dis tr ic t to urn am en t to ok pla ce on V ale n tin e’s D ay . T hat m orn in g a bliz zard d esc en ded o n n orth easte rn O hio , d eliv erin g fiv e in ch es o f sn ow a n d fo rty -fo ur-m ile -p er-h our w in ds. W e d ro ve to th e h ost s c h ool th ro ugh th e s to rm , catc h in g g lim pse s o f cars an d se m is sp un o ff th e ro ad , em erg en cy se rv ic es work ers h uddle d b y th e ro ad sid e, in a ro arin g m oonsc ap e o f w hite th at lo oked lik e th e z o m bie a p ocaly pse . “ W e sh ould w rite a sto ry a b out th is sto rm ,” Z oe sa id , a n d th e re st o f th e te am s ta rte d w eav in g n arra tiv es fro m th e im ag es th ey sa w . When w e a rriv ed a t th e h ost s c h ool, w e f o und a ta b le n ear th e w in dow . T hen th e k id s b um ped fis ts a n d d is a p peare d in to c la ssro om s to re ceiv e th eir p ro m pts an d w rite th eir s to rie s. T w o h ours la te r th ey e m erg ed , w id e-e y ed a n d w ru ng o ut. At th re e o’c lo ck , afte r sc o rin g an d ra n kin g all th e pie ces, th e to urn am en t org an iz ers u sh ere d u s, a lo ng w ith se v era l h undre d o th er c o m petito rs , in to th e gym t o a n nounce t h e w in ners . Long sto ry sh ort: W e d id w ell. In th e se v en th -g ra d e d iv is io n, Z oe fin is h ed fo urte en th . In th e eig hth -g ra d e d iv is io n, N ath an fin is h ed tw elf th , V ala te n th , Nats u m i fo urth , an d E llie fir s t. B y d ay ’s en d, w e w ere lif tin g th e fir s t- p la ce tr o phy f o r e ig hth g ra d e. A f e w w eek s la te r th e te am p erfo rm ed s im ila rly w ell in an oth er d is tr ic t to urn am en t, w here Z oe w on fir s t p la ce a n d b est o f ro und. F our stu den ts q ualif ie d fo r s ta te s, th e m ost in th e s c h ool’ s h is to ry , a n d E llie w on a n aw ard f o r t a le n te d y oung w rite rs . But f o r m e t h at w as n ot t h e h ig hlig ht. T he h ig hlig ht i n volv ed C ars o n, t h e q uie t eig hth -g ra d er w ho h ad n ev er d one m uch w ritin g. W hile h e d id n ot a d van ce p ast th e d is tr ic t to urn am en t, h e k ep t sh ow in g u p a t T uesd ay p ra ctic e se ssio ns. H e wasn ’t so sh y an ym ore ab out sh arin g his w ritin g, an d he w as sh ow in g his cre ativ ity in o th er w ay s. ( T hat s p rin g, to th e s u rp ris e o f te ach ers a n d p are n ts , h e would p erfo rm a te rrif ic A ttic u s F in ch in th e s c h ool’ s p ro ductio n o f To K ill a Mockin gbir d . ) On th e te am , C ars o n’s s p ecia lty w as w ritin g c o m ic s to rie s a b out a le g en dary ch ara cte r n am ed J o hnny M cT ough, a ta ll, h an dso m e, tita n ic ally c o nfid en t h ig h sc h oole r w ho w as u nder th e m is im pre ssio n th at h e w as th e g re ate st fo otb all pla y er in th e w orld . Jo hnny M cT ough sto rie s w ere w onderfu l p artly b ecau se Jo hnny’s u nsh ak ab le b elie f t h at h e d id n’t n eed a n yone— not a c o ach , n ot a t e am , not h is p are n ts , n ot e v en a h elm et— le d h im i n to a ll k in ds o f f u nny p re d ic am en ts . But m ostly th ey w ere w onderfu l becau se of th e w ay C ars o n an d th e te am in te ra cte d . E ach w eek , in a sw ag gerin g, m ach o voic e, C ars o n w ould re la te Jo hnny M cT ough’s l a te st a d ven tu re , a n d t h e t e am w ould l a u gh u pro ario usly . W e would la u gh a t th e s p ecta cle o f th is m is g uid ed h ero w ho th ought h e c o uld ta k e on th e w orld a lo ne. T hen w e w ould a ll s ta rt w ork in g to geth er to m ak e th at s to ry ev en b ette r. For m y f a th er W ritin g t h is b ook w as a t e am p ro je ct, a n d I a m l u ck y t o h av e s o m e e x cep tio nally s k ille d c o ach es. F ore m ost a m ong t h em a re A ndy W ard , m y b rillia n t e d ito r, a n d D av id B la ck , m y s u perb a g en t. My b ro th er M au ric e is an in cre d ib ly ta le n te d ed ito r an d w rite r, an d w as in valu ab le th ro ughout th e r e se arc h an d w ritin g pro cess, cre atin g co ncep ts , ch alle n gin g id eas, ed itin g m an usc rip ts , an d patie n tly e n gag in g in h undre d s o f c o nvers a tio ns. T hose c o nvers a tio ns, m ore th an a n y o th ers , a re w here th is b ook t o ok i ts s h ap e. At R an dom H ouse , I’d lik e to th an k K aela M yers , C in dy M urra y , S usa n C orc o ra n , K im H ovey , K ara W als h , S an yu D illo n, D eb bie A ro ff, T here sa Z oro , M ax M in ck le r, S co tt S han non, S im on S ulliv an , A m elia Z alc m an , P ao lo P ep e, a n d G in a C en tr e llo . A t B la ck I n c: S usa n R aih ofe r, E m ily H offm an , S ara h S m ith , a n d J e n ny H erre ra . A t W an ash ak er: M arg are t E w en , K ath ry n E w en , a n d A drie n ne Z an d. A t P ix ar: E d C atm ull, M ic h elle R ad clif f, W en dy T an zillo , an d M ik e S undy. A t th e S an A nto nio S purs : R . C . B ufo rd , C hip E ngella n d, C had F orc ie r, a n d S ean M ark s. A t Z ap pos: M ag gie H su , J o e M ah on, L is a S hufro , A ngel S ugg, J e an ne M ark el, Z ubin D am an ia , Z ach W are , a n d C onnie Y eh . A t ID EO : D uan e B ra y , N ili M etu ki, N jo ki G ita h i, L aw re n ce A bra h am so n, P ete r A nto nelli, a n d N ad ia W alk er. A t K IP P: D av e L ev in , M ik e F ein berg , J o e N eg ro n, A llis o n W illis H olle y , L au re n A bra m so n, A ngela F asc illa , J e ff L i, C arly S co tt, A le x a R och e, a n d G le n n D av is . A t th e U prig ht C itiz en s B rig ad e: K ev in H in es an d N ate D ern . A t U nio n S quare H osp ita lity G ro up: D an ny M ey er, E rin M ora n , H ale y C arro ll, R ic h ard C ora in e, R ach el H offh eim er, S usa n R eilly S alg ad o, S te p han ie J a ck so n, K im D iP alo , A llis o n S ta ad , a n d T an ya E dm unds. I ’d a ls o lik e to th an k t h e m em bers o f t h e N av y S E A L c o m munity w ho p re fe r n ot t o b e n am ed h ere . Man y w ith in th e s c ie n tif ic c o m munity g av e o f th eir tim e a n d e x pertis e . I’d lik e to e sp ecia lly th an k J a y V an B av el, A m y E dm ondso n, S ig al B ars a d e, G re g ory W alto n, G eo ff C ohen , J e ff P olz er, C arl M arc i, W ill F elp s, T om A lle n , J e ffry S im pso n, C lif fo rd S to tt, A ndy M olin sk y, B ra d le y S ta ats , O re n L ed erm an , A le x P en tla n d, R eb R eb ele , C onsta n tin os C outif a ris , M atth ew C orrito re , a n d B en W ab er. Man y c o lle ag ues a n d f rie n ds g en ero usly s h are d in sig hts a b out g ro up p erfo rm an ce a n d c u ltu re — in m an y c ase s b ecau se th ey h ap pen ed to b e m em bers o f te rrif ic o rg an iz atio ns. I’d e sp ecia lly lik e to th an k C hris A nto netti, M ik e C hern off, T erry F ra n co na, P au l a n d K are n D ola n , D ere k F alv ey , C arte r H aw kin s, J a m es H arris , C eci C la rk , B ria n M ile s, O sc ar G utie rre z R am ir e z, A le x E ck elm an , E ric B in der, M att F orm an , T om W ie d en bau er, S ky A ndre ch eck , V ic to r W an g, A le x M erb erg , M att B la k e, J o hnny G ory l, M arle n e L eh ky, N ild a T afa n elli, R oss A tk in s, M ark S hap ir o , A dam G ra n t, P ete r V in t, Jo hn K esse l, C hris G ra n t, Je rry A zzin aro , Jo sh G ib so n, S te v e G era , R ic h D iv in ey , S am P re sti, B illy D onovan , M ark D aig neau lt, O liv er W in te rb one, D ustin S eale , S co tt M cL ach la n , M ik e F ord e, H en ry A bbott, D av id E pste in , A le x G ib ney , L asz lo B ock , T om W uje c, B ob B ow m an , D av id M ars h , F in n G unders o n, R ic h ie G ra h am , A nne B ufo rd , T ro y F la n ag an , S haw n H unte r, D en nis J a ffe , R an d P eck nold , B re tt L ed bette r, P ete C arro ll, C in dy B ris to w , M ic h ael R uhlm an , B ill P ab st, J a y B erh alte r, N ic o R om eijn , W im v an Z w am , S co tt F lo od, D an R usse ll, a n d D oug L em ov. On th e p ers o nal s id e, I’d lik e to th an k J o n C oyle , M aria n J o nes, J o hn G iu ggio , R ob F is h er, F re d a n d Beeb F is h er, T om K iz zia , T odd B alf , J e ff a n d C in dy K elle r, L au ra H ohnhold , M ik e P ate rn iti, S ara C orb ett, Mark B ry an t, M ars h all S ella , K ath ie F re er, T om a n d C atie B urs c h , P au l C ox, K ir s te n D octe r, R ob a n d Em ily P olla rd , D av e L ucas, G eo rg e B ilg ere , D oug a n d L is a V ah ey , C arri T hurm an , J o hn R ohr, G eo B each , Sydney W eb b, a n d L is a D am our f o r h er s h arp e d ito r’s e y e. Fin ally , I ’d l ik e t o t h an k m y p are n ts , M au ric e a n d A gnes C oyle , w ho h av e b een n orth s ta rs o f i n sp ir a tio n an d su pport fro m th e v ery sta rt. I’d lik e to th an k m y c h ild re n , A id an , K atie , L ia , a n d Z oe, w ho a re th e gre ate st s o urc es o f j o y a n d m ean in g i n m y l if e , a n d w ho m ak e m e i n cre d ib ly p ro ud. A nd m ost o f a ll I ’d l ik e to th an k m y w if e , J e n , w hose w arm th , s m arts , a n d k in dness lig ht u p e v ery d ay w ith lo ve. T his b ook o nly ex is ts b ecau se o f y ou. I n tr o ductio n · W hen T w o P lu s T w o E quals T en F or m ore o n c u ltu re ’s e ffe ct o n th e b otto m lin e, s e e J o hn K otte r a n d J a m es H esk ett’ s Corp ora te C ultu re a nd P erfo rm ance (N ew Y ork : T he F re e P re ss, 1 992); D . D en is o n a n d A . M is h ra , “ T ow ard a T heo ry o f O rg an iz atio nal C ultu re a n d E ffe ctiv en ess,” Org aniz a tio n S cie n ce 6 ( 1 995), 2 04–23; a n d G . G ord on a n d N . D iT om aso , “P re d ic tin g C orp ora te P erfo rm an ce fro m O rg an iz atio nal C ultu re ,” Jo urn al of M anagem en t S tu die s 2 9 ( 1 992), 7 83–98. 1 · T he G ood A pple s F or m ore o n b elo ngin g c u es, se e W . F elp s, T . M itc h ell, a n d E . B yin gto n, “ H ow , W hen , a n d W hy B ad A pple s S poil th e B arre l: N eg ativ e G ro up M em ber a n d D ysfu nctio nal G ro ups,” Rese a rc h in O rg aniz a tio nal B eh avio r 2 7 ( 2 006), 1 75–222; J . C urh an a n d A . P en tla n d, “ T hin S lic es o f N eg otia tio n: P re d ic tin g O utc o m es f ro m C onvers a tio nal D ynam ic s W ith in th e F ir s t F iv e M in ute s,” Jo urn al o f A pplie d P sy ch olo gy 9 2 ( 2 007), 8 02–11; an d W illia m S to ltz m an ’s “T ow ard a S ocia l S ig nalin g F ra m ew ork : A ctiv ity an d E m phasis in S peech ,” m aste r’s th esis , M IT (2 006). F or an ex plo ra tio n o f so cio m etr ic s, se e A le x P en tla n d’s Honest S ig nals (C am brid ge, M A: M IT P re ss, 2 008) a n d Socia l P hysic s (N ew Y ork : T he P en guin P re ss, 2 014) a s w ell a s B en W ab er’s Peo ple A naly tic s ( U pper S ad dle R iv er, N J: P ears o n F T P re ss, 2 013). The c o ncep t o f p sy ch olo gic al s a fe ty w as p io neere d b y W illia m K ah n in “ P sy ch olo gic al C onditio ns o f P ers o nal E ngag em en t a n d D is e n gag em en t a t W ork ,” Aca dem y o f M anagem en t J o urn al 1 1 ( 1 990), 6 92–724. A m y E dm ondso n’s w ork in th is are a is outs ta n din g; you can fin d m uch of it in Tea m in g: H ow O rg aniz a tio ns L ea rn , In nova te , a nd C om pete in th e K now le d ge E co nom y (S an F ra n cis c o : Jo sse y -B ass P fe if fe r, 2 012). 2 · T he B illio n-D olla r D ay W hen N oth in g H appened F or a d eep er lo ok a t G oogle ’s d ev elo pm en t o f th e A dW ord s e n gin e, s e e S te v en L ev y’s In th e P le x (N ew Y ork : S im on & S ch uste r, 2 011). F or m ore o n th e s u ccess ra te s o f d if fe re n t o rg an iz atio nal m odels , s e e J . B aro n a n d M . H an nan , “ O rg an iz atio nal B lu ep rin ts fo r S uccess in H ig h-T ech S ta rtu ps: L esso ns fro m th e S ta n fo rd P ro je ct o n E m erg in g C om pan ie s,” Califo rn ia M anagem en t R evie w 4 4 (2 002), 8 –36; an d M . H an nan , J . B aro n, G . H su , a n d O . K ocak , “ O rg an iz atio nal I d en titie s a n d th e H azard o f C han ge,” In dustr ia l and C orp ora te C hange 1 5 ( 2 006), 7 55–84. For m ore o n b elo ngin g c u es a n d b eh av io r c h an ge, s e e G . W alto n, G . C ohen , D . C w ir , a n d S . S pen cer, “M ere B elo ngin g: T he P ow er o f S ocia l C onnectio ns,” Jo urn al o f P erso nality a nd S ocia l P sy ch olo gy 1 02 (2 012), 513–32; G . W alto n an d P. Carr, “S ocia l Belo ngin g an d th e M otiv atio n an d In te lle ctu al Ach ie v em en t of N eg ativ ely Ste re o ty ped Stu den ts ,” in Ste re o ty p e Thre a t: Theo ry , Pro cesse s, and Applic a tio n, M . I n zlic h t a n d T . S ch m ad er ( e d s.) ( N ew Y ork : O xfo rd U niv ers ity P re ss, 2 012); A . B ro oks, H . Dai, an d M . S ch w eitz er, “I’m S orry A bout th e R ain ! S uperflu ous A polo gie s D em onstr a te E m path ic Concern a n d I n cre ase T ru st,” Socia l P sy ch olo gic a l a nd P erso nality S cie n ce 5 ( 2 014), 4 67–74; G . C arte r, K . Clo ver, I. W hyte , A . D aw so n, a n d C . D ’E ste , “ P ostc ard s fro m th e E dge P ro je ct: R an dom is e d C ontr o lle d Tria l of an In te rv en tio n U sin g Postc ard s to R ed uce R ep etitio n of H osp ita l T re ate d D elib era te Self Pois o nin g,” BM J ( 2 005); a n d P . F is c h er, A . S au er, C . V ogrin cic , a n d S . W eis w eile r, “ T he A ncesto r E ffe ct: Thin kin g ab out O ur G en etic O rig in E nhan ces In te lle ctu al P erfo rm an ce,” Euro pea n Jo urn al of Socia l Psy ch olo gy 4 1 ( 2 010), 1 1–16. For m ore o n h ow b elo ngin g a n d i d en tity w ork i n sid e t h e b ra in , s e e J . V an B av el, L . H ack el, a n d Y . X ia o , “T he G ro up M in d: T he P erv asiv e I n flu en ce o f S ocia l I d en tity o n C ognitio n,” Rese a rc h a nd P ersp ectiv es in Neu ro sc ie n ces 2 1 ( 2 013), 4 1–56; D . P ack er a n d J . V an B av el, “ T he D ynam ic N atu re o f I d en tity : F ro m th e Bra in to B eh av io r,” The P sy ch olo gy o f C hange: L ife C onte xts , E xp erie n ces, a nd I d en titie s, N . B ra n sc o m be an d K . R ey nold s (e d s.) (H ove, U nite d K in gdom : P sy ch olo gy P re ss, 2 015); a n d D . d e C re m er a n d M . v an Vugt, “S ocia l Id en tif ic atio n E ffe cts in S ocia l D ile m mas,” Euro pea n Jo urn al o f S ocia l P sy ch olo gy 2 9 (1 999), 8 71–93. 3 · T he C hris tm as T ru ce , th e O ne-H our E xp erim ent, a nd th e M is sile ers The C hris tm as T ru ce s to ry h as b een to ld in m an y p la ces; th e m ost in -d ep th v ers io ns c an b e f o und in T ony Ash w orth ’s Tre n ch W arfa re 1 914–1918: T he L iv e a nd L et- L iv e S yste m (L ondon: P an B ooks, 2 000) a n d Sta n le y W ein tr a u b’s Sile n t N ig ht ( N ew Y ork : P lu m e, 2 002). F or a w id e-a n gle lo ok a t h ow a ltr u is m w ork s, se e R obert A xelr o d’s The E vo lu tio n of C oopera tio n (N ew Y ork : B asic B ooks, 1984) an d M ic h ael Tom ase llo ’s Why W e C oopera te ( C am brid ge, M A: M IT P re ss, 2 009). For m ore o n th e W IP R O ex perim en t, se e D . C ab le , F . G in o, an d B . S ta ats , “B re ak in g T hem In o r Rev ealin g Their B est? R efra m in g Socia liz atio n A ro und N ew co m er Self -E xpre ssio n,” Adm in is tr a tiv e Scie n ce Q uarte rly 5 8 ( 2 013), 1 –36. F or m ore o n th e n ucle ar-la u nch c re w s, I ’d r e co m men d E ric S ch lo sse r’s Com mand a nd C ontr o l ( N ew Y ork : T he P en guin P re ss, 2 013). 4 · H ow to B uild B elo ngin g For N eil P ain e’s stu dy of P opovic h ’s co ach in g dom in an ce, se e fiv eth ir ty eig ht.c o m / fe atu re s/ 2014-n ba- pre v ie w -th e-ris e -o f-th e-w arrio rs / . F or m ore o n th e s tu dy o f w hy N BA p la y ers te n d to b eh av e s e lf is h ly , s e e E. U hlm an n a n d C . B arn es, “ S elf is h P la y I n cre ase s D urin g H ig h-S ta k es N BA G am es a n d I s R ew ard ed w ith More L ucra tiv e C ontr a cts ,” PLoS O NE 9 ( 2 014). For m ore o n th e m ag ic al- fe ed back stu dy, se e D . Y eag er, V . P urd ie -V au ghns, J. G arc ia , N . A pfe l, P . Brz u sto sk i, A . M aste r, W . H esse rt, M . W illia m s, a n d G . C ohen , “ B re ak in g th e C ycle o f M is tr u st: W is e In te rv en tio ns t o P ro vid e C ritic al F eed back A cro ss t h e R acia l D iv id e,” Jo urn al o f E xp erim en ta l P sy ch olo gy: Gen era l 1 43 ( 2 013), 8 04–24 . 5 · H ow to D esig n fo r B elo ngin g For m ore o n T hom as A lle n ’s w ork , s e e Managin g th e F lo w o f T ech nolo gy: T ech nolo gy T ra nsfe r a nd th e Dis se m in atio n o f T ech nolo gic a l In fo rm atio n W ith in th e R & D O rg aniz a tio n (C am brid ge, M A: M IT P re ss, 1984). Hsie h ’s u rg e t o M acG yver i s s till s tr o ng. A ro und t h e t im e I v is ite d , h e b eg an i m ple m en tin g a r a d ic al n ew man ag em en t a p pro ach c alle d h ola cra cy , w hic h s e ek s to re p la ce tr a d itio nal m an ag ers w ith s e lf -o rg an iz in g “cir c le s” in w hic h p eo ple d ete rm in e th eir o w n ta sk s a n d r o le s. T o s a y th at h ola cra cy w asn ’t a n im med ia te su ccess w ould b e t o p ut i t m ild ly . I t c au se d a w av e o f e m plo yee d ep artu re s, a n d i n 2 016 t h e c o m pan y f a ile d to m ak e Fortu ne m ag azin e’s T op 1 00 B est P la ces to W ork lis t f o r th e f ir s t tim e in s e v en y ears . H sie h h as sin ce m oved to a n e v en m ore a b str a ct m an ag em en t s y ste m c alle d T eal. W heth er th e o rg an iz atio n a n d th e cu ltu re c an c o ntin ue t o t h riv e r e m ain s t o b e s e en . 6 · Id eas fo r A ctio n For m ore o n th e p ow er o f g ra titu de, s e e L . W illia m s a n d M . B artle tt, “ W arm T han ks: G ra titu de E xpre ssio n Facilita te s S ocia l A ffilia tio n in N ew R ela tio nsh ip s v ia P erc eiv ed W arm th ,” Em otio n 1 5 (2 014); a n d A . Gra n t a n d F . G in o, “ A L ittle T han ks G oes a L ong W ay : E xpla in in g W hy G ra titu de E xpre ssio ns M otiv ate Pro so cia l B eh av io r,” Jo urn al o f P erso nality a nd S ocia l P sy ch olo gy 9 8 (2 010), 9 46–55. F or m ore o n th e sh ortc o m in gs o f s a n dw ic h fe ed back , s e e C . V on B erg en , M . B re ssle r, a n d K . C am pbell, “ T he S an dw ic h Feed back M eth od: N ot V ery T asty ,” Jo urn al o f B eh avio ra l S tu die s i n B usin ess 7 ( 2 014). Em ails a re r ic h r e p osito rie s o f b elo ngin g c u es; h ere a re t w o s tu die s t h at s h ow h ow t h ey r e v eal t h e i n te rn al fa b ric o f g ro ups: L . W u, “ S ocia l N etw ork E ffe cts o n P ro ductiv ity a n d Jo b S ecu rity : E vid en ce fro m th e Adoptio n of a Socia l N etw ork in g T ool,” In fo rm atio n Syste m s R ese a rc h 24 (2 013), 30–51; an d S. Sriv asta v a, A . G old berg , V . M an ia n , an d C . Potts , “E ncu ltu ra tio n T ra je cto rie s: L an guag e, C ultu ra l Adap ta tio n, a n d I n div id ual O utc o m es i n O rg an iz atio ns,” Managem en t S cie n ce , f o rth co m in g. 7 · “ T ell M e W hat Y ou W ant, a nd I’ll H elp Y ou” Flig ht 232’s co ck pit voic e re co rd in g can be fo und at av ia tio n-s a fe ty .n et/ in vestig atio n/ cv r/ tr a n sc rip ts / cv r_ ua2 32.p df . C ap ta in A l H ay nes p ro vid ed a d eta ile d a cco unt o f th e c ra sh in a M ay 2 4, 1 991, s p eech to th e N ASA A m es R ese arc h C en te r a t th e D ry den F lig ht R ese arc h F acility in E dw ard s, C A , th e tr a n sc rip t o f whic h can be fo und at cle ar-p ro p.o rg / av ia tio n/ hay nes.h tm l . In ad ditio n, se e Flig ht 232 by L au re n ce Gonzale s (N ew Y ork : W . W . N orto n & C om pan y, 2 014) an d Confr o ntin g M is ta kes b y Ja n U . H ag en (L ondon: P alg ra v e M acm illa n , 2 013). Anoth er ele m en t o f F lig ht 2 32’s sto ry in volv es a se t o f tr a in in g p ro ced ure s calle d C re w R eso urc e Man ag em en t, w hic h h ad b een e sta b lis h ed b y th e N atio nal T ra n sp orta tio n S afe ty B oard in th e la te 1 970s afte r se v era l c ra sh es c au se d b y p ilo t e rro r. T he tr a in in g so ught to re p la ce th e to p-d ow n “ p ilo t is a lw ay s rig ht” c u ltu re w ith fra n k, fa st c o m munic atio n, te ach in g c ap ta in a n d c re w a s e rie s o f s im ple b eh av io rs a n d hab its d esig ned to re v eal a n d so lv e p ro ble m s to geth er. P rio r to F lig ht 2 32’s c ra sh , C ap ta in H ay nes h ad underg one s e v era l w eek s o f C RM tr a in in g; h e c re d ite d th e p ro gra m f o r s a v in g h is lif e a n d th at o f th e o th er su rv iv ors . 8 · T he V uln era bilit y L oop For m ore o n th e s c ie n ce o f g en era tin g in div id ual a n d g ro up c lo se n ess, s e e A . A ro n, E . M elin at, E . A ro n, an d R . B ato r, “T he Experim en ta l G en era tio n of In te rp ers o nal C lo se n ess: A Pro ced ure an d Som e Pre lim in ary F in din gs,” Perso nality a nd S ocia l P sy ch olo gy B ulle tin 2 3 (1 997), 3 63–77; W . S w an n, L . Milto n, a n d J . P olz er, “ S hould W e C re ate a N ic h e o r F all in L in e? Id en tity N eg otia tio n a n d S m all G ro up Effe ctiv en ess,” Jo urn al o f P erso nality a nd S ocia l P sy ch olo gy 7 9, (2 000), 2 38–50; an d J. C hatm an , J. Polz er, S . B ars a d e, a n d M . N eale , “ B ein g D if fe re n t Y et F eelin g S im ila r: T he In flu en ce o f D em ogra p hic Com positio n an d O rg an iz atio nal C ultu re on W ork P ro cesse s an d O utc o m es,” Adm in is tr a tiv e Scie n ce Quarte rly 4 3 ( 1 998), 7 49–80. For m ore o n th e th e m ach in ery o f tr u st, s e e D . D eS te n o, M . B artle tt, J . B au m an n, L . W illia m s, a n d L . Dic k en s, “ G ra titu de a s a M ora l S en tim en t: E m otio n-G uid ed C oopera tio n i n E co nom ic E xch an ge,” Em otio n 10 ( 2 010), 2 89–93; a n d B . v on D aw an s, U . F is c h bach er, C . K ir s c h bau m , E . F eh r, a n d M . H ein ric h s, “ T he Socia l Dim en sio n of Str e ss Reactiv ity : Acu te Str e ss In cre ase s Pro so cia l Beh av io r in Hum an s,” Psy ch olo gic a l S cie n ce 2 3 ( 2 012), 6 51–60. F or a d eep er e x plo ra tio n, s e e D av id D eS te n o’s The T ru th A bout Tru st ( N ew Y ork : H udso n S tr e et, 2 014). For m ore o n th e R ed B allo on C halle n ge, s e e J . T an g, M . C eb ria n , N . G ia co be, H . K im , T . K im , a n d D . Wic k ert, “ R efle ctin g o n t h e D ARPA R ed B allo on C halle n ge,” Com munic a tio ns o f t h e A C M 5 4 ( 2 011), 7 8– 85; a n d G . P ic k ard , I . R ah w an , W . P an , M . C eb ria n , R . C ra n e, A . M ad an , a n d A . P en tla n d, “ T im e-C ritic al Socia l M obiliz atio n,” Scie n ce 3 34 ( 2 011), 5 09–12. 9 · T he S uper-C oopera to rs For m ore on th e orig in s of th e N av y S E A Ls, se e Am eric a ’s F ir st F ro gm an by E liz ab eth K au ffm an (A nnap olis , M D: N av al In stitu te P re ss, 2 004). F or m ore o n th e U prig ht C itiz en s B rig ad e, s e e Hig h-S ta tu s Chara cte rs b y B ria n R afte ry (N ew Y ork : M eg aw att P re ss, 2 013); The U prig ht C itiz e n s B rig ade C om ed y Im pro vis a tio nal M anual b y M att B esse r, I a n R oberts , a n d M att W als h ( N ew Y ork : T he C om ed y C ouncil o f Nic ea L LC , 2 013); Yes, A nd b y K elly L eo nard a n d T om Y orto n (N ew Y ork : H arp erB usin ess, 2 015); a n d The F unnie st O ne in th e R oom : T he L iv es a nd L eg en ds o f D el C lo se b y K im H ow ard J o hnso n (C hic ag o: Chic ag o R ev ie w P re ss, 2 008). 11 · H ow to C re ate C oopera tio n w it h In div id uals For m ore o n B ell L ab s, s e e D av id G ertn er’s The I d ea F acto ry : B ell L abs a nd th e G re a t A ge o f A m eric a n In nova tio n ( N ew Y ork : P en guin P re ss, 2 012). F or m ore o n I D EO , s e e The A rt o f I n nova tio n b y T om K elle y (N ew York : Curre n cy Double d ay , 2001) an d Change by Desig n by Tom Bro w n (N ew York : Harp erB usin ess, 2 009). For stu die s o n c o nco rd an ce, se e C . M arc i, J. H am , E . M ora n , a n d S . O rr, “ P hysio lo gic C orre la te s o f Perc eiv ed T hera p is t E m path y a n d S ocia l- E m otio nal P ro cess D urin g Psy ch oth era p y,” Jo urn al o f N erv o us and M en ta l D is e a se 1 95 (2 007),1 03–11; a n d C . M arc i a n d S . O rr, “ T he E ffe ct o f E m otio nal D is ta n ce o n Psy ch ophysio lo gic C onco rd an ce an d Perc eiv ed E m path y B etw een Patie n t an d In te rv ie w er,” Applie d Psy ch ophysio lo gy and B io fe ed back 3 1 ( 2 006), 1 15–28. 13 · T hre e H undre d a nd E le ve n W ord s For t h e s ta rlin gs’ s y ste m o f n av ig atio n, s e e M . B alle rin i, N . C ab ib bo, R . C an delie r, A . C av ag na, E . C is b an i, I. G ia rd in a, V . L eco m te , A . O rla n di, G . P aris i, A . P ro caccin i, M . V ia le , a n d V . Z dra v kovic , “ In te ra ctio n Rulin g A nim al C olle ctiv e B eh av io r D ep en ds o n T opolo gic al R ath er t h an M etr ic D is ta n ce: E vid en ce f ro m a Fie ld S tu dy,” PN AS 1 05 ( 2 008), 1 232–37. Gab rie le O ettin gen ’s w ork o n m en ta l c o ntr a stin g c an b e fo und in Reth in kin g P ositiv e T hin kin g (N ew York : C urre n t, 2 014), as w ell as G . O ettin gen , D . M ay er, A . S ev in cer, E . S te p hen s, H . P ak , an d M . Hag en ah , “ M en ta l C ontr a stin g a n d G oal C om mitm en t: T he M ed ia tin g R ole o f E nerg iz atio n,” Perso nality and S ocia l P sy ch olo gy B ulle tin 3 5 ( 2009), 6 08–22. For m ore on th e Pygm alio n E ffe ct, se e R . R ose n th al an d L . Ja co bso n, “T each ers ’ E xpecta n cie s: Dete rm in ate s o f P upils ’ I Q G ain s,” Psy ch olo gic a l R ep orts 1 9 ( 1 966), 1 15–18. F or m ore o n h ow n arra tiv es affe ct m otiv atio n, s e e A . G ra n t, E . C am pbell, G . C hen , K . C otto ne, D . L ap ed is , a n d K . L ee, “ Im pact a n d t h e Art of M otiv atio n M ain te n an ce: T he E ffe cts of C onta ct w ith B en efic ia rie s on P ers is te n ce B eh av io r,” Org aniz a tio nal B eh avio r a nd H um an D ecis io n P ro cesse s 1 03 ( 2 007), 5 3–67. 14 · T he H oolig ans a nd th e S urg eons See C . S to tt, O . A dan g, A . L iv in gsto ne, a n d M . S ch re ib er, “ T ack lin g F ootb all H oolig an is m : A Q uan tita tiv e Stu dy o f P ublic O rd er, P olic in g a n d C ro w d P sy ch olo gy,” Psy ch olo gy P ublic P olic y a nd L aw 5 3 (2 008), 115–41; C . S to tt an d S . R eic h er, “H ow C onflic t E sc ala te s: T he In te r-G ro up D ynam ic s of C olle ctiv e Footb all C ro w d ‘V io le n ce,’   ” Socio lo gy 3 2, (1 998), 3 53–77; A . E dm ondso n, R . B ohm er, a n d G . P is a n o, “S peed in g U p T eam L earn in g,” Harv a rd B usin ess R evie w 7 9, n o. 9 ( 2 001), 1 25–32; a n d A . E dm ondso n, R . Bohm er, a n d G . P is a n o, “ D is ru pte d R outin es: T eam L earn in g a n d N ew T ech nolo gy Im ple m en ta tio n in Hosp ita ls ,” Adm in is tr a tiv e S cie n ce Q uarte rly 4 6 ( 2 001), 6 85–716. 15 · H ow to L ead fo r P ro fic ie ncy See S. R eilly Salg ad o an d W . Sta rb uck , “F in e R esta u ra n ts : C re atin g In im ita b le A dvan ta g es in a Com petitiv e In dustr y ,” docto ra l dis se rta tio n, New York Univ ers ity Gra d uate Sch ool of Busin ess Adm in is tr a tio n ( 2 003). 16 · H ow to L ead fo r C re ativ it y See Cre a tiv ity I n c . b y E d C atm ull w ith A m y W alla ce ( N ew Y ork : R an dom H ouse , 2 014). Reco m mended R eadin g Lasz lo B ock , Work R ule s ( N ew Y ork : G ra n d C en tr a l P ublis h in g, 2 015) Dav id B ro oks, The S ocia l A nim al ( N ew Y ork : R an dom H ouse , 2 011) Arie d e G eu s, The L iv in g C om pany ( B osto n, M A: H arv ard B usin ess R ev ie w P re ss, 2 002) Angela D uck w orth , Grit: T he P ow er o f P erse vera nce a nd P assio n ( N ew Y ork : S crib ner, 2 016) Charle s D uhig g, The P ow er o f H abit: W hy W e D o W hat W e D o in L ife a nd B usin ess ( N ew Y ork : R an dom House , 2 012) Am y E dm ondso n, Tea m in g: H ow O rg aniz a tio ns L ea rn , I n nova te , a nd C om pete i n t h e K now le d ge E co nom y (S an F ra n cis c o : J o sse y -B ass P fe if fe r, 2 012) Adam G ra n t, Giv e a nd T ake ( N ew Y ork : V ik in g, 2 013) Ric h ard H ack m an , Lea din g T ea m s ( B osto n, M A: H arv ard B usin ess R ev ie w P re ss, 2 002) Chip a n d D an H eath , Sw itc h : H ow to C hange T hin gs W hen C hange is H ard ( N ew Y ork : B ro ad w ay B ooks, 2010) Seb astia n J u nger, Trib e: O n H om eco m in g a nd B elo ngin g ( N ew Y ork : H arp erC ollin s, 2 016) Ja m es K err, Leg acy ( L ondon: C onsta b le & R obin so n, 2 013) Patr ic k L en cio ni, The F iv e D ysfu nctio ns o f a T ea m : A L ea dersh ip F able ( S an F ra n cis c o : J o sse y -B ass, 2 002) Sta n le y M cC hry sta l, Tea m of T ea m s: N ew R ule s of E ngagem en t fo r a C om ple x W orld (N ew Y ork : Portf o lio , 2 015). Mark P ag el, Wir e d f o r C ultu re ( N ew Y ork : W . W . N orto n & C om pan y, 2 012) Dan ie l P in k, Driv e: T he S urp ris in g T ru th A bout W hat M otiv a te s U s ( N ew Y ork : R iv erh ead B ooks, 2 009) Am an da R ip le y , The S m arte st K id s in th e W orld : A nd H ow T hey G ot T hat W ay (N ew Y ork : S im on & Sch uste r, 2 013) Edgar H . S ch ein , Help in g ( O ak la n d, C A : B erre tt- K oeh le r P ublis h ers , 2 009) Edgar H . S ch ein , Hum ble I n quir y ( O ak la n d, C A : B erre tt- K oeh le r P ublis h ers , 2 013) Pete r M . S en ge, The F ifth D is c ip lin e ( N ew Y ork : D ouble d ay B usin ess, 1 990) Mic h ael T om ase llo , Why W e C oopera te ( C am brid ge, M A: M IT P re ss, 2 009) B y D anie l C oyle H ard ball W akin g S am uel L ance A rm str o ng’s W ar T he T ale nt C ode T he S ecre t R ace (w it h T yle r H am ilt o n) T he L it tle B ook o f T ale nt T he C ult u re C ode About t h e A uth or D ANIE L C OYLE is th e New Y ork T im es b ests e llin g a u th or o f The T ale n t C ode, T he L ittle B ook o f Tale n t, T he S ecre t R ace ( w ith T yle r H am ilto n), a n d o th er b ooks. W in ner ( w ith H am ilto n) o f th e 2 012 Willia m H ill S ports B ook o f th e Y ear P riz e, h e is a c o ntr ib utin g e d ito r f o r Outs id e m ag azin e, a n d a ls o work s a s a s p ecia l a d vis o r to th e C le v ela n d I n dia n s. C oyle liv es in C le v ela n d, O hio , d urin g th e s c h ool year a n d i n H om er, A la sk a, d urin g t h e s u m mer w ith h is w if e , J e n , a n d t h eir f o ur c h ild re n . dan ie lc o yle .c o m Tw itte r: @dan ie lc o yle What’s n ex t o n you r r e a d in g l i s t? Dis c o v er y ou r n ex t gre a t r e a d ! Get p ers o n ali z e d b ook p ic k s a n d u p-t o -d ate n ew s a b ou t t h is a u th or. Sig n u p n ow .